Scorpions (orderScorpiones) arepredatoryarachnids with eight legs, a pair ofgrasping pincers and a narrow, segmented tail, often carried in a characteristic forward curve over the back and always ending with astinger. The evolutionary history of scorpions goes back435 million years. They mainly live indeserts but have adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions, and can be found on all continents exceptAntarctica. There are over 2,500 describedspecies, with 22 extant (living) families recognized to date. Theirtaxonomy is being revised to account for 21st-centurygenomic studies.
Scorpions primarily prey oninsects and otherinvertebrates, but some species huntvertebrates. They use their pincers to restrain and kill prey, or to prevent their own predation. Thevenomous sting is used for offense and defense. During courtship, the male and female grasp each other's pincers and dance while the male tries to move the female onto itssperm packet. All known species givelive birth and the female cares for the young as theirexoskeletons harden, transporting them on its back. The exoskeleton containsfluorescent chemicals and glows underultraviolet light.
The vast majority of species do not seriously threaten humans, and healthy adults usually do not need medical treatment after a sting. About 25 species (fewer than onepercent) have venom capable of killing a human, which happens frequently in the parts of the world where they live, primarily where access to medical treatment is unlikely.
Scorpions appear in art, folklore, mythology, and commercial brands.Scorpion motifs are woven intokilim carpets for protection from their sting.Scorpius is the name of a constellation; the correspondingastrological sign is Scorpio. A classical myth about Scorpius tells how the giant scorpion and its enemyOrion became constellations on opposite sides of the sky.
Etymology
The wordscorpion originated inMiddle English between 1175 and 1225 AD fromOld Frenchscorpion,[1] or from Italianscorpione, both derived from the Latinscorpio, equivalent toscorpius,[2] which is theromanization of the Greekσκορπίος –skorpíos,[3] with no native IE etymology (cfr. Arabicʕaqrab 'scorpion', Proto-Germanic*krabbô 'crab').
Scorpionfossils have been found in manystrata, including marineSilurian and estuarineDevonian deposits, coal deposits from theCarboniferous Period and inamber. Whether the early scorpions were marine or terrestrial has been debated, and while they hadbook lungs like modern terrestrial species,[4][5][6][7] the most basal such asEramoscorpius were originally considered as still aquatic,[8] until it was found thatEramoscorpius had book lungs.[9] Over 100 fossil species of scorpion have been described.[10] The oldest found as of 2021 isDolichophonus loudonensis, which lived during the Silurian, in present-day Scotland.[11]Gondwanascorpio from the Devonian is among the earliest-known terrestrial animals on theGondwana supercontinent.[12] Some Palaeozoic scorpions possessedcompound eyes similar to those of eurypterids.[13] TheTriassic fossilsProtochactas andProtobuthus belong to the modern cladesChactoidea andButhoidea respectively, indicating that thecrown group of modern scorpions had emerged by this time.[14] In 2025, a 140 million year old scorpion was discovered in Jordanianamber by Abbas Haddadin.[15]
Phylogeny
External
The Scorpiones are aclade within the pulmonateArachnida (those with book lungs). Arachnida is placed within theChelicerata, a subphylum ofArthropoda that containssea spiders andhorseshoe crabs, alongside terrestrial animals without book lungs such asticks andharvestmen.[4] The extinctEurypterida, sometimes called sea scorpions, though they were not all marine, are not scorpions; their grasping pincers werechelicerae, unlike those of scorpion which are second appendages.[16] Scorpiones issister to theTetrapulmonata, a terrestrial group of pulmonates containing thespiders and whip scorpions.[4]
Recent studies placepseudoscorpions as the sister group of scorpions in the clade Panscorpiones, which together with Tetrapulmonata makes up the clade Arachnopulmonata.[17]
Cladogram of current understanding of chelicerate relationships, after Sharma and Gavish-Regev (2025):[18]
The internalphylogeny of the scorpions has been debated,[4] butgenomic analysis consistently places theBothriuridae as sister to a clade consisting of Scorpionoidea andChactoidea. The scorpions diversified during the Devonian and into the earlyCarboniferous. The main division is into the clades Buthida and Iurida. The Bothriuridae diverged starting before temperate Gondwana broke up into separate land masses, completed by theJurassic.[19] In 2022, theCaraboctonidae andHadruridae were treated as superfamilies, separate clades from Iuroidea, while theVaejovidae were similary treated as a separate clade from Chactoidea.[20]
Carl Linnaeus described six species of scorpion in his genusScorpio in 1758 and 1767; three of these are now consideredvalid and are calledScorpio maurus,Androctonus australis, andEuscorpius carpathicus; the other three are dubious names. He placed the scorpions among his "Insecta aptera" (wingless insects).[21] In 1801,Jean-Baptiste Lamarck divided up the "Insecta aptera", creating thetaxon Arachnides for spiders, scorpions, andacari (mites and ticks), though it also contained theThysanura, Myriapoda and parasites such aslice.[22] GermanarachnologistCarl Ludwig Koch created the order Scorpiones in 1837. He divided it into four families, the six-eyed scorpions "Scorpionides", the eight-eyed scorpions "Buthides", the ten-eyed scorpions "Centrurides", and the twelve-eyed scorpions "Androctonides".[23] More recently, some twenty-two families containing over 2,500 species of scorpions have beendescribed, with many additions and much reorganization of taxa in the 21st century.[24][4][25] There are over 100 described taxa of fossil scorpions.[10]
Scorpion anatomy (dorsal view ofCheloctonus jonesii): 1 = Cephalothorax orprosoma; 2 = Preabdomen ormesosoma; 3 = Tail ormetasoma; 4 = Claws orpedipalps; 5 = Legs; 6 = Mouth parts orchelicerae; 7 = Pincers orchelae; 8 = Moveable claw or tarsus; 9 = Fixed claw or manus; 10 =Stinger or aculeus; 11 =Telson (anus in previous joint); 12 = Opening of book lungs
Scorpions range in size from the 8.5 mm (0.33 in)Typhlochactas mitchelli of Typhlochactidae,[37] to the 23 cm (9.1 in)Heterometrus swammerdami of Scorpionidae.[39] The body of a scorpion is divided into two parts ortagmata: thecephalothorax orprosoma, and the abdomen oropisthosoma.[a] The opisthosoma consists of a broad anterior portion, themesosoma or pre-abdomen, followed by a thinner tail-like posterior, themetasoma or post-abdomen.[41] External differences between the sexes are not obvious in most species. In some, the tail of the male is slenderer than that of the female.[42]
Cephalothorax
The cephalothorax comprises thecarapace, eyes, chelicerae (mouth parts),pedipalps (which havechelae, commonly called claws or pincers) and four pairs ofwalking legs. Scorpions have two eyes on the top of the cephalothorax, and usually two to five pairs of eyes along the front corners of the cephalothorax. While unable to form sharp images, their central eyes are amongst the most light sensitive in the animal kingdom, especially in dim light, which makes it possible for nocturnal species to use starlight to navigate at night.[43] The chelicerae are at the front and below the carapace. They are pincer-like and have three segments and "teeth".[44][45] The brain of a scorpion is located in the front part of the cephalothorax, just above theesophagus.[46] As in other arachnids, the nervous system is highly concentrated in the cephalothorax, but has a long ventral nerve cord with segmentedganglia which may be aprimitive trait.[47]
The pedipalp is a segmented, clawedappendage segmented into (from closest to the body outward) the coxa, trochanter, femur, patella, tibia (including the fixed claw and the manus) and tarsus (moveable claw).[48] Unlike those of some other arachnids, the eight-segmented legs have not been altered for other purposes, though they may occasionally be used for digging, and females may use them to catch emerging young. They are covered with manyproprioceptors,bristles and sensorysetae.[49] Depending on the species, the legs may have spines and spurs.[50]
Mesosoma
Ventral view: thepectines have a comblike structure in an inverted V shape.
The mesosoma or preabdomen is the broad part of the opisthosoma.[41] In the early stages of embryonic development the mesosoma consist of eight segments, but the first segment disappear before birth, so the mesosoma in scorpions actually consist of segments 2-8.[51][52][53] Theseanterior sevensomites (segments) of the opisthosoma are each covered by a hardened plate, thetergite, on the back surface. Underneath, somites 3 to 7 are armored with matching plates calledsternites. The underside of somite 1 has two covering over thegenital opening. Sternite 2 forms the basal plate bearing the comb-likepectines,[54] which function as sensory organs.[55]
The next four somites, 3 to 6, all possess twospiracles each. They serve as openings for the scorpion's respiratory organs, known asbook lungs, and vary in shape.[56][57] There are thus four pairs of book lungs; each consists of some 140 to 150 thin flaps orlamellae filled with air inside a pulmonary chamber, connected on the ventral side to an atrial chamber which opens into a spiracle. Bristles keep the lamellae from touching. A muscle opens the spiracle and widens the atrial chamber; dorsoventral muscles contract to constricts the pulmonary chamber, pushing air out, and relax to allow the chamber to refill.[58] The 7th and last somite lacks any notable structure.[56]
The mesosoma contains the heart or "dorsal vessel" which is the center of the scorpion'sopen circulatory system. The heart is continuous with a deep arterial system which spreads throughout the body. Sinuses return deoxygenated blood (hemolymph) to the heart; the blood is re-oxygenated by cardiac pores. The mesosoma also houses the reproductive system. The femalegonads are three or four tubes which are aligned and have two to four transverseanastomoses connecting them. These tubes createoocytes and house developing embryos. They connect to twooviducts which connect to a single atrium leading to the genital orifice.[59] Male gonads are two pairs of cylindrical tubes with a ladder-like configuration; they containspermatozoa-producingcysts. Both tubes end in aspermiduct, one on the opposite sides of the mesosoma. They connect to glandular symmetrical structures called paraxial organs, which end at the genital orifice. These create two halves of thechitin-basedspermatophore which merge.[60][61]
The "tail" or metasoma is divded into five segments and thetelson, which is not strictly a segment. The five segments are merely body rings; they lack apparent sterna or terga, and are largest farthest from the center. These segments have keels, setae and bristles which may be used for taxonomic classification. The anus is at the back of the last segment, and is encircled by four anal papillae and the anal arch.[56] The tails of some species contain light receptors.[43]
The telson includes thevesicle, which contains a symmetrical pair ofvenom glands. Externally it bears the curved stinger, the hypodermic aculeus, equipped with sensory hairs. Venom ducts are attached to the glands to transport the substance along the aculeus from the bulb of the gland to immediately near the tip, where each of the paired ducts has its own venom pore.[62] An intrinsic muscle system attached to the glands pumps venom through the stinger into the intended victim.[63] The stinger containsmetalloproteins with zinc, hardening the tip.[64] The optimal angle to launch a sting is around 30 degrees relative to the tip.[65]
Scorpion are typicallynocturnal orcrepuscular, finding shelter during the day in burrows, cracks and bark.[66] Many species dig an elementary shelter underneath tiny stones. Scorpions may use burrows built by other animals or dig their own; scorpion burrows vary in complexity and depth.Hadrurus species dig burrows over 2 m (6 ft 7 in) deep whileUrodacus hoplurus digs in spirals. Digging is done using the mouth parts, claws and legs. In several species, particularly of the family Buthidae, individuals can be found in the same shelter; bark scorpions may gather in groups of up to 30 individuals. In some species, families of females and young sometimes aggregate.[67]
Scorpions prefer areas where the temperature remains in the range of 11–40 °C (52–104 °F), but may survive temperatures from well below freezing to desert heat.[68][69] Scorpions can withstand intense heat:Leiurus quinquestriatus,Scorpio maurus andHadrurus arizonensis can live in temperatures of 45–50 °C (113–122 °F) if they are sufficiently hydrated. Desert species must deal with the extreme changes in temperature from sunrise to sunset or between seasons;Pectinibuthus birulai lives in a temperature range of −30–50 °C (−22–122 °F). Scorpions that live outside deserts prefer lower temperatures. The ability to withstand the cold may be related to the increase in the sugartrehalose when the temperature drops. Some specieshibernate.[70] Scorpions have immunity toionizing radiation and have survived nuclear tests in Algeria[71] and Nevada.[72]
Desert scorpions have several adaptations for water conservation. They excrete insoluble compounds such asxanthine,guanine, anduric acid, not requiring water for their removal from the body. Guanine is the main component has it holds the greatest amount of nitrogen. A scorpion's cuticle holds in moisture vialipids and waxes from epidermal glands, and protects againstultraviolet radiation. Even a dehydrated scorpion can survive with highosmotic pressure in its blood.[73] Desert scorpions get most of their moisture from the food they eat but some can absorb water from the sand if it is humid enough. Species that live in denser vegetation and in more moderate temperatures will drink from puddles or water accumulated on plants.[74]
A scorpion uses its stinger both for killing prey and defense. Some species make direct, quick strikes with their tails while others make slower, more circular strikes which can more easily return the stinger to a position where it can strike again.Leiurus quinquestriatus can whip its tail at a speed of up to 128 cm/s (50 in/s) in a defensive strike.[75]
Mortality and defense
Scorpions may be attacked by other arthropods like ants, spiders,solifugids andcentipedes. Majorpredators include frogs, lizards, snakes, birds, and mammals.[76] Predators adapted for hunting scorpions include thegrasshopper mouse anddesert long-eared bat, which are immune to their venom.[77][78] In one study, scorpion remains were found in 70% of the latter's droppings.[78] Scorpions host parasites includingmites,scuttle flies,nematodes and some bacteria. Theimmune system of scorpions is strong enough to resist several types of bacterial infections.[79]
When threatened, a scorpion raises its claws and tail in a defensive posture. Some speciesstridulate to warn off predators by rubbing certain hairs, the stinger or the pectines.[80] Certain species have a preference for using either the claws or stinger as defense, depending on the size of the appendages.[81] A few scorpions, such asParabuthus,Centruroides margaritatus, andHadrurus arizonensis, squirt venom as far as 1 meter (3.3 ft) which can injure predators in the eyes.[82] SomeAnanteris species canshed parts of their tail to escape predators. The parts do not grow back, leaving them unable to sting and defecate, but they can still kill small prey and reproduce for at least eight months afterward.[83]
Scorpions generally prey on insects, particularlygrasshoppers,crickets,termites,beetles andwasps. They also prey on spiders,solifugids,woodlice and even smallvertebrates including lizards, snakes and mammals. Species with large claws may prey on earthworms and mollusks. The majority of species are opportunistic and consume a variety of prey though some may be highly specialized;Isometroides vescus specializes on certain burrowing spiders. Prey size depends on the size of the species. Several scorpion species aresit-and-wait predators, which involves a hungry scorpion staying at or near the entrance to their burrow until prey arrives. Others actively search for prey. Scorpions detect their prey withmechanoreceptive andchemoreceptive hairs on their bodies and grab them with their claws. Small animals are killed merely with the claws, particularly by large-clawed species. Larger and more dangerous prey is given a sting.[84][85]
Scorpions, like other arachnids, digest their food externally. The chelicerae are used to rip small amounts of food off the prey item and into a pre-oral cavity underneath. The digestive juices from the gut are egested onto the food, and the digested food is then sucked into the gut. Any solid indigestible matter (such asexoskeleton fragments) is collected bysetae in the pre-oral cavity and ejected. The sucked-in food is pumped into the midgut by thepharynx, where it is further digested. The waste is transported through the hindgut and out of the anus. Scorpions can eat large amounts of food during one meal. They can internally store food in a specialized organ and have a very lowmetabolic rate which enables some to survive up to a year without eating.[86]
Mating
Male and female scorpion duringpromenade à deux
Most scorpions reproduce sexually, with male and female individuals; species in some genera, such asHottentotta andTityus, and the speciesCentruroides gracilis,Liocheles australasiae, andAnanteris coineaui have been reported, not necessarily reliably, to reproduce throughparthenogenesis, in which unfertilized eggs develop into livingembryos.[87] Receptive females producepheromones which are picked up by wandering males using their pectines to comb the substrate. Males begin courtship by shifting their bodies back and forth, with the legs still, a behavior known as juddering. This appears to produce ground vibrations that are picked up by the female.[60]
The pair then make contact using their pedipalps, and perform adance called thepromenade à deux (French for "a walk for two"). In this dance, the male and female move around while facing each other, as the male searches for a suitable place to deposit its spermatophore. The courtship ritual can involve several other behaviors such as a cheliceral kiss, in which the male and female grasp each other's mouth-parts,arbre droit ("upright tree") where the partners elevate their posteriors and rub their tails together, and sexual stinging, in which the male stings the female to subdue it. The dance may be minutes to hours long.[88][89]
When the male has located a suitably stable surface, it deposits the spermatophore and guides the female over it. This allows the spermatophore to enter the female's genital opercula, which triggers release of the sperm, thus fertilizing the female. Amating plug then forms in the female to block further matings until it gives birth. The male and female then abruptly separate.[90][91]Sexual cannibalism after mating has only been reported anecdotally in scorpions.[92]
Gestation in scorpions can last for over a year in some species.[93] They have two types ofembryonic development; apoikogenic and katoikogenic. In the apoikogenic system, which is mainly found in the Buthidae, embryos develop in yolk-rich eggs insidefollicles. The katoikogenic system is documented in Hemiscorpiidae, Scorpionidae and Diplocentridae, and involves the embryos growing in adiverticulum which has a teat-like structure for them to feed through.[94] Unlike the majority of arachnids, which areoviparous, hatching from eggs, scorpions seem to be universallyviviparous, with live births; though apoikogenic species areovoviviparous where young hatch from eggs inside the mother before being born.[95] They are unusual among terrestrial arthropods in the amount of care a female gives to her offspring.[96] The size of a brood varies by species, from 3 to over 100.[97] The body size of scorpions is not correlated either with brood size or with life cycle length.[98]
Before giving birth, the female raises the front of its body and positions its pedipalps and front legs under itself for the young to fall through ("birth basket"). Each young exit through the genital opercula, expel the embryonic membrane, if any, and climb onto the mother's back where they remain until they have gone through at least onemolt. The period before the first molt is called the pro-juvenile stage; the young lack the ability to eat or sting, but havesuckers on their tarsi. This period lasts 5 to 25 days, depending on the species. The brood molt for the first time simultaneously in a process that lasts 6 to 8 hours, marking the beginning of the juvenile stage.[97]
Juvenile stages orinstars generally resemble smaller versions of adults, with pincers, hairs and stingers. They are still soft and colorless, and thus continue to ride on their mother's back for protection. As days pass, they become harder and more pigmented. They may leave their mother temporarily, returning when they sense potential danger. When fully hardened, young can hunt and kill on their own and eventually become fully independent.[99] A scorpion goes through an average of six molts before maturing, which may not occur until it is 6 to 83 months old, depending on the species. They can reach an age of 25 years.[93]
The mother glows bright teal, the young a dull grey.
Fluorescence
Scorpions glow a vibrant blue-green when exposed to certain wavelengths ofultraviolet light, such as that produced by ablack light, due tofluorescent chemicals such asbeta-carboline in the cuticle. Accordingly, a hand-held ultraviolet lamp has long been a standard tool for nocturnal field surveys of these animals. Fluorescence occurs as a result ofsclerotization and increases in intensity with each successive instar.[100] This fluorescence may function in detecting light.[101]
Scorpion venom serves to kill or paralyze prey rapidly, but only 25 species have venom that is deadly to humans, the most dangerous beingLeiurus quinquestriatus.[37] People withallergies are especially at risk, but otherwise symptoms typically last no more than two days for non-deadly species.[102] Deaths from lethal stings are caused by excessiveautonomic activity and toxic effects on cardiovascular or neuromuscular systems.Antivenom is used to counter scorpion envenomations, along with vasodilators to treat the cardiovascular system andbenzodiazepines for the neuromuscular system. Severehypersensitivity reactions includinganaphylaxis to scorpion antivenin can occur, though rarely.[103]
Scorpion stings are a public health problem, particularly in the tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas, North Africa, the Middle East and India. Around 1.5 million scorpion envenomations occur each year, with around 2,600 deaths.[104][105][106]Mexico is one of the most affected countries, with the highestbiodiversity of scorpions in the world, some 200,000 envenomations per year and at least 300 deaths.[107][108]
Efforts are made to prevent envenomation and to control scorpion populations. Prevention encompasses personal activities such as checking shoes and clothes before putting them on, not walking in bare feet or sandals, and filling in holes and cracks where scorpions might nest. Street lighting reduces scorpion activity. Control may involve the use ofinsecticides such aspyrethroids, or gathering scorpions manually with the help of ultraviolet lights. Domestic predators of scorpions, such as chickens and turkeys, can help to reduce the risk to a household.[104][105]
Scorpions are eaten in West Africa, Myanmar[111] and East Asia. Fried scorpion is traditionally eaten inShandong, China.[112] There, scorpions can be cooked and eaten in a variety of ways, including roasting, frying, grilling, raw, or alive. The stingers are typically not removed, since heat negates the harmful effects of the venom.[113] In Thailand, scorpions are not eaten as often as other arthropods, such as grasshoppers, but they are sometimes fried as street food.[114] They are used in Vietnam to makesnake wine (scorpion wine).[115]
Pets
Scorpions are often kept as pets. They are relatively simple to keep, the main requirements being a secure enclosure such as a glassterrarium with a lockable lid and the appropriate temperature and humidity for the chosen species, which typically means installing a heating mat and spraying regularly with a little water. The substrate needs to resemble that of the species' natural environment, such aspeat for forest species, orlateritic sand for burrowing desert species. Scorpions in the generaPandinus andHeterometrus are docile enough to handle. A largePandinus may consume up to threecrickets each week.Cannibalism is more common in captivity than in the wild and can be minimized by providing many small shelters within the enclosure and ensuring there is plenty of prey.[116][117] The pet trade has threatened wild populations of some scorpion species, particularlyAndroctonus australis andPandinus imperator.[118]
Ascorpion motif (two types shown) was often woven into Turkishkilim flatweave carpets, for protection from their sting.[119]
Scorpion pose inyoga has one or both legs pointing forward over the head, like a scorpion's tail.
The scorpion is a culturally significant animal. One of the earliest occurrences of the scorpion in culture is its inclusion, asScorpio, in the 12signs of the Zodiac byBabylonian astronomers during theChaldean period.[120]Inancient Egypt, the goddessSerket, who protected thePharaoh, was often depicted as a scorpion.[121] InGreek mythology,Artemis orGaia sent a giant scorpion namedScorpius to kill the hunterOrion, who had said he would kill all the world's animals. Orion and the scorpion both became constellations; as enemies they were placed on opposite sides of the world, so when one rises in the sky, the other sets.[122][123][124]
Scorpions are mentioned in theBible and theTalmud as symbols of danger and maliciousness.[123] The Sanskrit medical encyclopedia, TheSuśrutasaṃhita, datable to before 500 CE, contains a detailed description of thirty types of scorpion, classified according to the levels of toxicity of their stings and their colours. Treatments for scorpion-sting are described.[125] Scorpions have also appeared as amotif in art, especially inIslamic art in the Middle East.[126]Ascorpion motif is often woven into Turkishkilim flatweave carpets, for protection from their sting.[119] The scorpion is perceived both as an embodiment of evil and as a protective force such as adervish's powers to combat evil.[126] In Muslim folklore, the scorpion portrayshuman sexuality.[126] Scorpions are used infolk medicine in South Asia, especially inantidotes for scorpion stings.[126]
Thefable ofThe Scorpion and the Frog has been interpreted as showing that vicious people cannot resist hurting others, even when it is not in their interests.[127] More recently, the action inJohn Steinbeck's 1947 novellaThe Pearl centers on a poor pearl fisherman's attempts to save his infant son from a scorpion sting, only to lose him to human violence.[128] Scorpions have equally appeared in western artforms including film and poetry: thesurrealistfilmmakerLuis Buñuel made symbolic use of scorpions in his 1930 classicL'Age d'or (The Golden Age).[129] A hand- or forearm-balancingasana in modernyoga as exercise with the back arched and one or both legs pointing forward over the head in the manner of the scorpion's tail is calledScorpion pose.[130][131][132]
Notes
^As there is currently neither paleontological nor embryological evidence that arachnids ever had a separate thorax-like division, there exists an argument against the validity of the term cephalothorax, which means fusedcephalon (head) and thethorax. Similarly, arguments can be formed against use of the term abdomen, as the opisthosoma of all scorpions contains a heart and book lungs, organs atypical of an abdomen.[40]
^Scholtz, Gerhard; Kamenz, Carsten (2006). "The Book Lungs of Scorpiones and Tetrapulmonata (Chelicerata, Arachnida): Evidence for Homology and a Single Terrestrialisation Event of a Common Arachnid Ancestor".Zoology.109 (1):2–13.Bibcode:2006Zool..109....2S.doi:10.1016/j.zool.2005.06.003.PMID16386884.
^Waggoner, B. M. (12 October 1999)."Eurypterida: Morphology". University of California Museum of Paleontology Berkeley.Archived from the original on 23 October 2020. Retrieved20 October 2020.
^Burmeister, Carl Hermann C.; Shuckard, W. E. (trans) (1836).A Manual of Entomology. pp. 613ff.Archived from the original on 31 May 2021. Retrieved20 October 2020.
^Johnson, D. L. (2004). "The Northern Scorpion,Paruroctonus boreus, in Southern Alberta, 1983–2003".Arthropods of Canadian Grasslands 10(PDF). Biological Survey of Canada. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 29 November 2015.
^Gherghel, I.; Sotek, A.; Papes, M.; Strugariu, A.; Fusu, L. (2016). "Ecology and Biogeography of the Endemic ScorpionEuscorpius carpathicus (Scorpiones: Euscorpiidae): a Multiscale Analysis".Journal of Arachnology.44 (1):88–91.doi:10.1636/P14-22.1.S2CID87325752.
^Rubio, Manny (2000)."Commonly Available Scorpions".Scorpions: Everything About Purchase, Care, Feeding, and Housing.Barron's. pp. 26–27.ISBN978-0-7641-1224-9.The Guinness Book of Records claims [...]Heterometrus swammerdami, to be the largest scorpion in the world [9 inches (23 cm)]
^Lautié, N.; Soranzo, L.; Lajarille, M.-E.; Stockmann, R. (2007). "Paraxial Organ of a Scorpion: Structural and Ultrastructural Studies ofEuscorpius tergestinus Paraxial Organ (Scorpiones, Euscorpiidae)".Invertebrate Reproduction & Development.51 (2):77–90.doi:10.1080/07924259.2008.9652258.S2CID84763256.
^Schofield, R. M. S. (2001). "Metals in cuticular structures". In Brownell, P. H.; Polis, G. A. (eds.).Scorpion Biology and Research. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 234–256.ISBN978-0-19-508434-4.
^abHolderied, M.; Korine, C.; Moritz, T. (2010). "Hemprich's Long-eared Bat (Otonycteris hemprichii) as a Predator of Scorpions: Whispering Echolocation, Passive Gleaning and Prey Selection".Journal of Comparative Physiology A.197 (5):425–433.doi:10.1007/s00359-010-0608-3.PMID21086132.S2CID25692517.
^Monge-Nájera, J. (2019). "Scorpion Body Size, Litter Characteristics, and Duration of the Life Cycle (Scorpiones)".Cuadernos de Investigación UNED.11 (2):101–104.
^Rodríguez de la Vega, Ricardo C.; Vidal, Nicolas; Possani, Lourival D. (2013). "Scorpion Peptides". In Kastin, Abba J. (ed.).Handbook of Biologically Active Peptides (2nd ed.). Academic Press. pp. 423–429.doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-385095-9.00059-2.ISBN978-0-12-385095-9.
^Takeda, A. (2011)."Blumenreiche Handelswege: Ost-westliche Streifzüge auf den Spuren der FabelDer Skorpion und der Frosch" [Flowery Trade Routes: East-Western forays into the footsteps of the fableThe Scorpion and the Frog](PDF).Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte (in German).85 (1):124–152.doi:10.1007/BF03374756.S2CID170169337.Archived(PDF) from the original on 5 November 2020. Retrieved9 December 2020.(German) Die Moral der Fabel besagt: Manche Menschen handeln von Natur aus mörderisch und selbst-mörderisch zugleich. (English) The moral of the fable says: Some people act naturally murderous and self-murderous at the same time.
^Meyer, Michael (2005). "Diamond in the Rough: Steinbeck's Multifaceted Pearl".The Steinbeck Review.2 (2 (Fall 2005)):42–56.JSTOR41581982.
Stockmann, Roland; Ythier, Eric (2010).Scorpions of the World. N. A. P. Editions.ISBN978-2-913688-11-7.
Stockmann, Roland (2015). "Introduction to Scorpion Biology and Ecology". In Gopalakrishnakone, P.; Possani, L.; F. Schwartz, E.; Rodríguez de la Vega, R. (eds.).Scorpion Venoms.Springer. pp. 25–59.ISBN978-94-007-6403-3.
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![A scorpion motif (two types shown) was often woven into Turkish kilim flatweave carpets, for protection from their sting.[119]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aScorpion_kilim_motif.jpg)
