Historically, the definition of a scientific instrument has varied, based on usage, laws, and historical time period.[1][2][3] Before the mid-nineteenth century such tools were referred to as "natural philosophical" or "philosophical" apparatus and instruments, and older tools from antiquity to theMiddle Ages (such as theastrolabe andpendulum clock) defy a more modern definition of "a tool developed to investigate nature qualitatively or quantitatively."[1][3] Scientific instruments were made byinstrument makers living near a center of learning or research, such as a university or researchlaboratory. Instrument makers designed, constructed, and refined instruments for purposes, but if demand was sufficient, an instrument would go into production as a commercial product.[4][5]
In a description of the use of theeudiometer byJan Ingenhousz to showphotosynthesis, a biographer observed, "The history of the use and evolution of this instrument helps to show that science is not just a theoretical endeavor but equally an activity grounded on an instrumental basis, which is a cocktail of instruments and techniques wrapped in a social setting within a community of practitioners. The eudiometer has been shown to be one of the elements in this mix that kept a whole community of researchers together, even while they were at odds about the significance and the proper use of the thing."[6]
By World War II, the demand for improved analyses of wartime products such as medicines, fuels, and weaponized agents pushed instrumentation to new heights.[7] Today, changes to instruments used in scientific endeavors—particularly analytical instruments—are occurring rapidly, with interconnections to computers and data management systems becoming increasingly necessary.[8][9]
Instruments are increasingly based uponintegration withcomputers to improve and simplify control; enhance and extend instrumental functions, conditions, and parameter adjustments; and streamline data sampling, collection, resolution, analysis (both during and post-process), and storage and retrieval. Advanced instruments can be connected as alocal area network (LAN) directly or viamiddleware and can be further integrated as part of aninformation management application such as alaboratory information management system (LIMS).[13][14] Instrument connectivity can be furthered even more usinginternet of things (IoT) technologies, allowing for example laboratories separated by great distances to connect their instruments to a network that can be monitored from a workstation or mobile device elsewhere.[15]
^abcHessenbruch, Arne (2013).Reader's Guide to the History of Science. Taylor & Francis. pp. 675–77.ISBN9781134263011.
^Warner, Deborah Jean (March 1990). "What Is a Scientific Instrument, When Did It Become One, and Why?".The British Journal for the History of Science.23 (1):83–93.doi:10.1017/S0007087400044460.JSTOR4026803.S2CID145517920.
^ab"United States v. Presbyterian Hospital".The Federal Reporter.71:866–868. 1896.
^Turner, A.J. (1987).Early Scientific Instruments: Europe, 1400-1800. Phillip Wilson Publishers.
^Geerdt Magiels (2009)From Sunlight to Insight. Jan IngenHousz, the discovery of photosynthesis & science in the light of ecology, page 231, VUB PressISBN978-90-5487-645-8
^Mukhopadhyay, R. (2008). "The Rise of Instruments during World War II".Analytical Chemistry.80 (15):5684–5691.doi:10.1021/ac801205u.PMID18671339.
^McMahon, G. (2007).Analytical Instrumentation: A Guide to Laboratory, Portable and Miniaturized Instruments. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–6.ISBN9780470518557.
^Khandpur, R.S. (2016).Handbook of Analytical Instruments. McGraw Hill Education.ISBN9789339221362.
^Shadab, K.A. (2017). "KAS PERIODIC TABLE".International Research Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences.4 (7):221–261.
^Osiander, R. (2016). Darrin, M.A.G.;Barth, J.L. (eds.).Systems Engineering for Microscale and Nanoscale Technologies. CRC Press. pp. 137–172.ISBN9781439837351.
^James, W.S.; Lemole Jr, G.M. (2015). Latifi, R.; Rhee, P.; Gruessner, R.W.G. (eds.).Technological Advances in Surgery, Trauma and Critical Care. Springer. pp. 221–230.ISBN9781493926718.
^Wilkes, R.; Megargle, R. (1994). "Integration of instruments and a laboratory information management system at the information level: An inductively coupled plasma spectrometer".Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems.26 (1):47–54.doi:10.1016/0169-7439(94)90018-3.
The dictionary definition of-tron at Wiktionary, a suffix to denote a complex scientific instrument, like incyclotron,phytotron,synchrotron, ...
