Representatives from the three major modern Buddhist traditions, at theWorld Fellowship of Buddhists, 27th General Conference, 2014.
Theschools of Buddhism are the various institutional and doctrinal divisions ofBuddhism, which have often been based on historicalsectarianism and the differing teachings and interpretations of specific Buddhist texts. The branching of Buddhism into separate schools has been occurring from ancient times up to the present. The classification and nature of the variousdoctrinal,philosophical orcultural facets of the schools of Buddhism is vague and has been interpreted in many different ways, often due to the sheer number (perhaps thousands) of different sects, sub-sects, movements, etc. that have made up or currently make up the whole of the Buddhist tradition. The sectarian and conceptual divisions of Buddhist thought are part of the modern framework ofBuddhist studies, as well ascomparative religion inAsia. Some factors in Buddhist doctrine appear to be consistent across different schools, such as the afterlife, while others vary considerably.
East AsianMahāyāna ("Great Vehicle"),East Asian Buddhism or "Eastern Buddhism", prominent inEast Asia and derived from theChinese Buddhist traditions which began to develop during theHan Dynasty. This tradition focuses on the teachings found in Mahāyāna sutras (which are not considered canonical or authoritative in the Theravāda schools), preserved in theChinese Buddhist Canon, in theclassical Chinese language. There are many schools and traditions, with different texts and focuses, such asZen Buddhism (Chan) andPure Land (see below).
Vajrayāna ("Vajra Vehicle"), also known as Mantrayāna, Tantric Buddhism and Esoteric Buddhism. This category is mostly represented in "Northern Buddhism", also called "Indo-Tibetan Buddhism" (or just "Tibetan Buddhism"), but also overlaps with certain forms of East Asian Buddhism (see:Shingon). It is prominent inTibet,Bhutan,Sikkim, and theHimalayan region as well as inMongolia,Inner Mongolia, and the Russian republics ofBuryatia,Kalmykia, andTuva. It is sometimes considered to be a part of the broader category of Mahāyāna Buddhism instead of a separate tradition.[citation needed] The main texts of Indo-Tibetan Buddhism are contained in theKanjur and theTenjur. Besides the study of major Mahāyāna texts, this branch emphasizes the study of Buddhisttantric materials, mainly those related to theBuddhist tantras.
Another way of classifying the different forms of Buddhism is through the different monastic ordination traditions. There are three main traditions of monastic law (Vinaya) each corresponding to the first three categories outlined above:
The terminology for the major divisions of Buddhism can be confusing, as Buddhism is variously divided by scholars and practitioners according to geographic, historical, and philosophical criteria rather than criteria of the adherents themselves, with different terms often being used in different contexts. The following terms may be encountered in descriptions of the major Buddhist divisions:
the schools into which Buddhism became divided in its first few centuries; according to some scholars only one of these,Theravāda, survives as an independent school (derived from the earlyTamraparniya school), although others would claim the various Mahāyāna branches all derived mainly from the earlyCaitika school.
an alternative name used by some scholars[6] for East Asian Buddhism; also sometimes used to refer to all traditional forms of Buddhism, as distinct from Western(ized) forms.
Mahayana texts such as the Lotus Sutra and the Avatamsaka Sutra sought to unite all the different teachings into a single great way. These texts serve as the inspiration for using the term Ekayāna in the sense of "one vehicle." This "one vehicle" became a key aspect of the doctrines and practices of Tiantai and Tendai Buddhist sects, which subsequently influenced Chán and Zen doctrines and practices. In Japan, the one-vehicle teaching of the Lotus Sutra is also a main doctrine ofNichiren Buddhist sects. TheLotus Sutra is so central to these sects that meditation was replaced by chanting the Japanese wordsNamu Myoho Renge Kyo ("The Way of the Lotus Sutra") in religious practice.
Esoteric Buddhism
usually considered synonymous with "Vajrayāna".[7] Some scholars have applied the term to certain practices found within the Theravāda, particularly in Cambodia.[8]
literally meaning "lesser vehicle." It is considered a controversial term when applied by Mahāyānists to refer to the Theravāda schools, and as such is widely viewed as condescending and pejorative.[9][a] Moreover, Hīnayāna refers to now non-extant schools with limited sets of views, practices, and results, which emerged prior to the development of Mahāyāna traditions. The term is currently most often used as a way of describing a stage on the path in Tibetan Buddhism, but is often mistakenly confused with the contemporary Theravāda tradition, which is a far more complex, diversified, and profound phenomenon than the literal and limiting definition attributed to the wordHīnayāna in the aforementioned context.[10] Its use in scholarly publications is now also considered controversial.[b]
Lamaism
synonymous withTibetan Buddhism; an old term, sometimes still used, but widely considered derogatory.
a movement that emerged fromearly Buddhist schools, together with its later descendants, East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. Vajrayāna traditions are sometimes listed separately. The main use of the term in East Asian and Tibetan traditions is in reference to spiritual levels,[11] regardless of school.
an alternative term used by some scholars[6][page needed] for Tibetan Buddhism. Also, an older term still sometimes used to encompass both East Asian and Tibetan traditions. It has even been used to refer to East Asian Buddhism alone, without Tibetan Buddhism.
Secret Mantra
an alternative rendering ofMantrayāna, a more literal translation of the term used by schools in Tibetan Buddhism when referring to themselves.[15]
Sectarian Buddhism
an alternative name for the early Buddhist schools.
usually considered synonymous with "Vajrayāna".[12] However, one scholar describes the tantra divisions of some editions of theTibetan scriptures as including Śravakayāna, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna texts[17] (seeBuddhist texts). Some scholars,[8] particularly François Bizot,[18] have used the termTantric Theravada to refer to certain practices found particularly in Cambodia.
a movement that developed out of IndianMahāyāna, together with its later descendants. There is some disagreement on exactly which traditions fall into this category. Tibetan Buddhism is universally recognized as falling under this heading; many also include the JapaneseShingon school. Some scholars[20] also apply the term to the Koreanmilgyo tradition, which is not a separate school. One scholar says, "Despite the efforts of generations of Buddhist thinkers, it remains exceedingly difficult to identify precisely what it is that sets theVajrayana apart."[21]
Map of the major geographical centers of major Buddhist schools in South Asia, at around the time ofXuanzang's visit in the seventh century. * Red: non-PudgalavādaSarvāstivāda school * Orange: non-DharmaguptakaVibhajyavāda schools * Yellow:Mahāsāṃghika * Green:Pudgalavāda (Green) * Gray:Dharmaguptaka Note the red and grey schools already gave some original ideas of Mahayana Buddhism and the Sri Lankan section (seeTamrashatiya) of the orange school is the origin of modern Theravada Buddhism.
The early Buddhist schools or mainstream sects refers to the sects into which theIndian Buddhist monasticsaṅgha split. They are also called the Nikaya Buddhist schools, and in Mahayana Buddhism they are referred to either as theŚrāvaka (disciple) schools orHinayana (inferior) schools.
Most scholars now believe that the first schism was originally caused by differences invinaya (monastic rule).[22]: 88–90 Later splits were also due to doctrinal differences and geographical separation.
The first schism separated the community into two groups, theSthavira (Elders) Nikaya and theMahāsāṃghika (Great Community). Most scholars hold that this probably occurred after the time of Ashoka.[23] Out of these two main groups later arose many other sects or schools.
The Sarvāstivāda school, popular in northwest India andKashmir, focused onAbhidharma teachings.[24] Their name means "the theory that all exists" which refers to one of their main doctrines, the view that all dharmas exist in the past, present and in the future. This is an eternalist theory of time.[25] Over time, the Sarvāstivādins became divided into various traditions, mainly theVaibhāṣika (who defended the orthodox "all exists" doctrine in their Abhidharma compendium called theMahāvibhāṣa Śāstra), theSautrāntika (who rejected the Vaibhāṣika orthodoxy) and theMūlasarvāstivāda.
The Pudgalavāda sects (also known asVātsīputrīyas) were another group of Sthaviras which were known for their unique doctrine of thepudgala (person). Their tradition was founded by the elder Vātsīputra circa 3rd century BCE.[26]
The Vibhajyavādins were conservative Sthaviras who did not accept the doctrines of either the Sarvāstivāda or the Pudgalavāda. In Sri Lanka, a group of them became known as Theravada, the only one of these sects that survives to the present day. Another sect which arose from the Vibhajyavādins were the Dharmaguptakas. This school was influential in spreading Buddhism to Central Asia and to China. Their Vinaya is still used in East Asian Buddhism.
The Mahāsāṃghikas also split into various sub groups. One of these were theLokottaravādins (Transcendentalists), so called because of their doctrine which saw every action of the Buddha, even mundane ones like eating, as being of a supramundane and transcendental nature. One of the few Mahāsāṃghika texts which survive, theMahāvastu, is from this school. Another sub-sect which emerged from the Mahāsāṃghika was called theCaitika. They were concentrated inAndhra Pradesh and in South India. Some scholars such as A.K. Warder hold that many important Mahayana sutras originated among these groups.[27] Another Mahāsāṃghika sect was namedPrajñaptivāda. They were known for the doctrine that viewed all conditioned phenomena as being mere concepts (Skt.prajñapti).[28]
According to the Indian philosopherParamartha, a further split among the Mahāsāṃghika occurred with the arrival of the Mahayana sutras. Some sub-schools, such as theKukkuṭikas, did not accept the Mahayana sutras as being word of the Buddha, whole others, like the Lokottaravādins, did accept them.[29]
Although there are differences in the historical records as to the exact composition of the various schools of early Buddhism, a hypothetical combined list would be as follows:
Theravāda is the only extant mainstream non-Mahayana school. They are derived from the Sri LankanMahāvihāra sect, which was a branch of the South Indian Vibhajjavādins. Theravāda bases its doctrine on thePāli Canon, the only complete Buddhist canon surviving in aclassical Indian language. This language isPāli, which serves as the school'ssacred language andlingua franca.[31]
The different sects and groups in Theravāda often emphasize different aspects (or parts) of thePāli canon and the later commentaries (especially the very influentialVisuddhimagga), or differ in the focus on and recommended way of practice. There are also significant differences in strictness or interpretation of theVinaya Pitaka, the TheravādinVinaya followed by monastics of this tradition.
Nagarjuna, one of the most influential thinkers of Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism
Mahāyāna (Great Vehicle) Buddhism is category of traditions which focus on thebodhisattva path and affirm texts known asMahāyāna sutras. These texts are seen by modern scholars as dating as far back as the 1st century BCE.[32] Unlike Theravada and other early schools, Mahāyāna schools generally hold that there are currently many Buddhas which are accessible, and that they are transcendental or supramundane beings.[33]
The other major school of Indian Mahayana was theYogācāra ("yoga practice") school, also known as theVijñānavāda ("the doctrine of consciousness"),Vijñaptivāda ("the doctrine of ideas or percepts"), orCittamātra ("mind-only") school, founded byAsanga in the 4th century AD.
Some scholars also note that the compilers of theTathāgatagarbhatexts constitute a third "school" of Indian Mahāyāna.[34] This movement heavily influenced East Asian and Tibetan Mahayana schools such as theDashabhumika,Huayan,Tiantai,Jonang,Nichiren andZen sects, as did both Madhyamaka and Yogacara.
East Asian Buddhism or East Asian Mahayana refers to the schools that developed inEast Asia and use theChinese Buddhist canon. It is a major religion in China, Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam, Korea, Malaysia and Singapore. East Asian Buddhists constitute the numerically largest body of Buddhist traditions in the world, numbering over half of the world's Buddhists.[35][36]
Esoteric Buddhism, also known as Vajrayāna, Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, and Tantric Buddhism is often placed in a separate category by scholars due to its uniquetantric features and elements (instead of being grouped as part of Mahayana school). Esoteric Buddhism arose and developed inmedieval India among esoteric adepts known asMahāsiddhas. Esoteric Buddhism maintains its own set of texts alongside the classic scriptures, these esoteric works are known as theBuddhist Tantras. It includes practices that make use ofmantras,dharanis,mudras,mandalas and the visualization of deities and Buddhas.
Tibetan Buddhism, the most widespread of these traditions, is practiced in Tibet, Mongolia, Inner Mongolia and few other parts of China, parts of Nepal, North India (incl. Sikkhim) and Siberia, Bhutan. Monastics of this tradition generally follow theMulasarvastivadaVinaya.
B. R. Ambedkar delivering speech during conversion,Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur, 14 October 1956Taixu, the founder of Chinese Humanistic Buddhism
One of the most significant and popular major branches of the new Buddhist movements is:
•Navayana ("New Way"), also known asDalit Buddhist movement or "Ambedkarite" Buddhism, developed byB. R. Ambedkar based on the idea of “Implementing the Principles of Buddhism for the Welfare of Many People.”
•Hòa Hảo is a Sect of Buddhism from Vietnam, founded byHuỳnh Phú Sổ. Following the true teachings of Buddhism to attain Pure Land to be free from the cycle of Samsara.
^Hinayana (literally, "inferior way") is a polemical term, which self-described Mahāyāna (literally, "great way") Buddhist literature uses to denigrate its opponents.[9]
^"The supposedMahayana-Hinayana dichotomy is so prevalent in Buddhist literature, that it has yet fully to loosen its hold over scholarly representations of the religion".[9]
^abcdefAccording to Buswell and Lopez, theKāśyapīya andMahīśāsaka were offshoots of the Sarvastivadins, but are grouped under theVibhajjavāda as "non-sarvastivada" groups.[30]
^Hopkins, Jeffrey (1985)The Ultimate Deity in Action Tantra and Jung's Warning against Identifying with the Deity Buddhist-Christian Studies, Vol. 5, (1985), pp. 159–172
^Skilling, (1997).Mahasutras, volume II, Parts I & II, p. 78. Lancaster, UK: Pali Text Society
^Crosby, Kate (2000). Tantric Theravada: A bibliographic essay on the writings of François Bizot and others on the yogvacara Tradition. [In]Contemporary Buddhism, 1:2, 141–198;doi:10.1080/14639940008573729.
^Encyclopedia of Religion, volume 2, Macmillan, New York, 1987, pp. 440ff;Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, sv Buddhism
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