| Schinus terebinthifolia | |
|---|---|
 | |
Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Rosids |
| Order: | Sapindales |
| Family: | Anacardiaceae |
| Genus: | Schinus |
| Species: | S. terebinthifolia |
| Binomial name | |
| Schinus terebinthifolia | |
Schinus terebinthifolia is a species offlowering plant in thecashew family,Anacardiaceae, that is native to subtropical and tropical South America. Common names includeBrazilian peppertree,[2]aroeira,rose pepper,broadleaved pepper tree,[3]wilelaiki (or wililaiki),[4]Christmasberry tree[5] andFlorida holly.[6] The species name has been very commonly misspelled as ‘terebinthifolius’.[a]
Brazilian peppertree is a sprawlingshrub or smalltree, with a shallow root system, reaching a height of 7–10 m (23–33 ft). The branches can be upright, reclining, or nearly vine-like, all on the same plant. Its plastic morphology allows it to thrive in all kinds of ecosystems: From dunes to swamps, where it grows as a semi-aquatic plant.[8] Theleaves arealternate, 10–22 cm (3.9–8.7 in) long,pinnately compound with (3–) 5–15 leaflets; the leaflets are roughlyoval (lanceolate to elliptical), 3–6 cm (1.2–2.4 in) long and 2–3.5 cm (0.79–1.38 in) broad, and have finely toothed margins, an acute to rounded apex and yellowish veins. The leafrachis between the leaflets is usually (but not invariably) slightly winged. The plant isdioecious, with small whiteflowers borne profusely in axillaryclusters. Thefruit is adrupe 4–5 mm (0.16–0.20 in) diameter, carried in dense clusters of hundreds.
The twovarieties are:
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Schinus terebinthifolia is native toArgentina,Brazil andParaguay.[9] In the United States, it has been introduced to California, Texas, Hawaii, Arizona, Nevada, Louisiana,[10] andFlorida.[11]
Brazilian pepper is widely grown as anornamental plant in frost-free regions of South America for its foliage and fruit. In its native habitat it is amelliferous flower[8] and is the main source of food for the stingless beeTetragonisca angustula, which is an important honey producer in Central and South America.[12]
Although it is not a true pepper (Piper), its dried drupes are often sold aspink peppercorns, as are the fruits from the related speciesSchinus molle (Peruvian peppertree). The seeds can be used as a spice, adding apepper-like taste to food. They are usually sold in a dry state and have a bright pink color. They are less often sold pickled in brine, where they have a dull, almost green hue.
Planted originally as an ornamental outside of its native range, Brazilian pepper has become widespread and is considered aninvasive species in many subtropical regions with moderate to high rainfall, including parts or all of Australia, the Bahamas, Bermuda, southern China, Cuba, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii, Malta, the Marshall Islands, Mauritius, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, Puerto Rico, Réunion, South Africa and the United States. In drier areas, such as Israel and southern California, it is also grown, but has not generally proven invasive. In California, it is considered invasive in coastal regions by the California Invasive Plant Council.[13]
Brazilian pepper is hard to control because it producesbasal shoots if the trunk is cut. Trees also produce abundantseeds that aredispersed by birds and ants. This same hardiness makes the tree highly useful forreforestation in its native environment, but enables it to become invasive outside of its natural range.[8]
Like many other species in the familyAnacardiaceae, Brazilian pepper has an aromaticsap that can cause skin reactions (similar topoison ivy burns) in some sensitive people – although the reaction is usually weaker than that induced by touch of the closely relatedLithraea molleoides, known in Brazil as "wild" aroeira (aroeira brava). Conversely,Schinus terebinthifolia is commonly known as "tame" aroeira (aroeira mansa).
In a paper on triterpenes, the ingested fruits are noted to have a “paralyzing effect” on birds.[14] The narcotic and toxic effects on birds and other wildlife has also been noted by others, e.g., Bureau of Aquatic Plant Management. The AMA Handbook of Poisonous and Injurious Plants reports that the triterpenes found in the fruits can result in irritation of the throat, gastroenteritis, diarrhea, and vomiting.[15] Like most other members of the Anacardiaceae, Brazilian pepper contains active alkenyl phenols, e.g., urushiol, cardol, which can cause contact dermatitis and inflammation in sensitive individuals.[16][17] Contact with the “sap” from a cut or bruised tree can result in rash, lesions, oozing sores, severe itching, welts and reddening and swelling (especially of the eyes).[18]
The burning ofSchinus terebinthifolia releases many airborne irritants, affecting the skin, eyes, and lungs. It is said to have a "mace-like" effect upon nearby people and is highly advised against.[19]
Also known as "Florida holly",Schinus terebinthifolia wasintroduced to Florida by at latest 1891, probably earlier,[20] where it has spread rapidly since about 1940,[21] replacing native plants, like mangroves, with thousands of acres occupied. It is especially adept at colonizingdisturbed sites and can grow in both wet and dry conditions. Its growth habit allows it to climb overunderstory trees and invade maturecanopies, forming thickets that choke out most other plants.
The species, including the seed, is legally prohibited from sale, transport, or planting in Florida, according to the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services Noxious Weed List.[22] It is classified as a Category I pest by The Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (FL EPPC).[23] To keep the plant from spreading into native plant communities and displacing them, local regulations and environmental guidelines require eradication of Brazilian pepper wherever possible. The plant and all parts are also illegal for sale or transfer in Texas.[24] As one of the two species sold as pink peppercorn, the other beingSchinus molle, it lacksgenerally recognized as safe (GRAS) status with the FDA.[25]
Severalbiocontrols are being studied for use in Florida.[26][27][28][29][30][31][32]
It is a declared weed in several states of Australia.[33][34][35] In South Africa, it is classified as a category 1 invader inKwaZulu-Natal province, where any plants are to be removed and destroyed, and a category 3 invader in all other provinces, meaning it may no longer be planted.[36]
Two herbicides are approved for use in the United States to exterminate Brazilian pepper:Triclopyr, using the basal bark method; andglyphosate.Picloram can be used if the stump has been freshly cut, but this is neither the preferred nor most effective means of eradication.
Calophya terebinthifolii andCalophya lutea are twopsyllids in theCalophya with high specificity – among plants inFlorida – for Brazilian peppertree. Thus they are recommended for use in biocontrol in that area.[37]
