Scandinavia is asubregion ofnorthern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples.Scandinavia most commonly refers toDenmark,Norway, andSweden. It can sometimes also refer to theScandinavian Peninsula (which excludes Denmark but includes a part of northernFinland). In English usage, Scandinavia is sometimes used as a synonym forNordic countries.[6]Iceland and theFaroe Islands are sometimes included in Scandinavia for theirethnolinguistic relations with Sweden, Norway and Denmark. While Finland differs from other Nordic countries in this respect, some authors call it Scandinavian due to its economic and cultural similarities.[4][5]
The geography of the region is varied, from the Norwegian fjords in the west and Scandinavian mountains covering parts of Norway and Sweden, to the low and flat areas of Denmark in the south, as well as archipelagos and lakes in the east. Most of the population in the region live in the more temperate southern regions, with the northern parts having long, cold winters.
During theViking Age Scandinavian peoples participated in large-scale raiding, conquest, colonization and trading mostly throughout Europe. They also used theirlongships for exploration, becoming the first Europeans to reach North America. These exploits saw the establishment of theNorth Sea Empire which comprised large parts of Scandinavia and Great Britain, though it was relatively short-lived. Scandinavia was eventuallyChristianized, and the coming centuries saw various unions of Scandinavian nations, most notably theKalmar Union of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, which lasted for over 100 years until the Swedish kingGustav I led Sweden out of the union. Denmark and Norway, as well asSchleswig-Holstein, were then united until 1814 asDenmark–Norway. Numerous wars between the nations followed, which shaped the modern borders and led to the establishment of theSwedish Empire in the 17th and early 18th centuries. The most recent Scandinavian union was theunion between Sweden and Norway, which ended in 1905.
In modern times the region has prospered, with the economies of the countries being amongst the strongest in Europe. Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, and Finland all maintain welfare systems considered to be generous, with the economic and social policies of the countries being dubbed the "Nordic model".
The geography of Scandinavia is extremely varied. Notable are theNorwegian fjords, theScandinavian Mountains covering much of Norway and parts of Sweden, the flat, low areas in Denmark and thearchipelagos of Finland, Norway and Sweden. Finland and Sweden have many lakes andmoraines, legacies of theice age, which ended about tenmillennia ago.
The southern regions of Scandinavia, which are also the most populous regions, have atemperate climate.[7] Scandinavia extends north of theArctic Circle, but has relatively mild weather for its latitude due to theGulf Stream. Many of the Scandinavian mountains have analpine tundra climate.
The climate varies from north to south and from west to east: a marine west coast climate (Cfb) typical ofwestern Europe dominates in Denmark, the southernmost part of Sweden and along the west coast of Norway reaching north to 65°N, withorographic lift giving more mm/yearprecipitation (<5000 mm) in some areas in western Norway. The central part – fromOslo toStockholm – has ahumid continental climate (Dfb), which gradually gives way tosubarctic climate (Dfc) further north and cool marine west coast climate (Cfc) along the northwestern coast.[8] A small area along the northern coast east of theNorth Cape has tundra climate (Et) as a result of a lack of summer warmth. The Scandinavian Mountains block the mild and moist air coming from the southwest, thus northern Sweden and theFinnmarksvidda plateau in Norway receive little precipitation and have cold winters. Large areas in the Scandinavian mountains havealpine tundra climate.
The warmest temperature ever recorded in Scandinavia is 38.0 °C inMålilla (Sweden).[9] The coldest temperature ever recorded is −52.6 °C inVuoggatjålme,Arjeplog (Sweden).[10] The coldest month was February 1985 in Vittangi (Sweden) with a mean of −27.2 °C.[10]
Southwesterly winds further warmed byfoehn wind can give warm temperatures in narrow Norwegian fjords in winter.Tafjord has recorded 17.9 °C in January andSunndal 18.9 °C in February.
Scandinavia originally referred vaguely toScania, a formerly Danish region that became Swedish in the 17th century.The original areas inhabited (during the Bronze Age) by the peoples now known as Scandinavians included what is now Northern Germany (particularlySchleswig-Holstein), all of Denmark, southern Sweden, the southern coast of Norway andÅland in Finland while namesakeScania found itself in the centre.
The wordsScandinavia andScania (Skåne, the southernmost province of Sweden) are both thought to go back to theProto-Germaniccompound*Skaðin-awjō (theð represented in Latin byt ord), which appears later inOld English asScedenig and inOld Norse asSkáney.[11] The earliest identified source for the nameScandinavia isPliny the Elder'sNatural History, dated to the 1st century AD.
Various references to the region can also be found inPytheas,Pomponius Mela,Tacitus,Ptolemy,Procopius andJordanes, usually in the form ofScandza. It is believed that the name used by Pliny may be ofWest Germanic origin, originally denoting Scania.[12] According to some scholars, the Germanic stem can be reconstructed as*skaðan-, meaning "danger" or "damage".[13] The second segment of the name has been reconstructed as*awjō, meaning "land on the water" or "island". The nameScandinavia would then mean "dangerous island", which is considered to refer to the treacherous sandbanks surrounding Scania.[13]Skanör in Scania, with its long Falsterbo reef, has the same stem (skan) combined with -ör, which means "sandbanks".
Alternatively,Sca(n)dinavia andSkáney, along with theOld Norse goddess nameSkaði, may be related to Proto-Germanic*skaðwa- (meaning "shadow"). John McKinnell comments that this etymology suggests that the goddess Skaði may have once been a personification of the geographical region of Scandinavia or associated with the underworld.[14]
Another possibility is that all or part of the segments of the name came from the pre-GermanicMesolithic people inhabiting the region.[15] In modernity, Scandinavia is a peninsula, but between approximately 10,300 and 9,500 years ago the southern part of Scandinavia was an island separated from the northern peninsula, with water exiting theBaltic Sea through the area whereStockholm is now located.[16]
The Latin names in Pliny's text gave rise to different forms in medieval Germanic texts. In Jordanes' history of theGoths (AD 551), the formScandza is the name used for their original home, separated by sea from the land of Europe (chapter 1, 4).[17] Where Jordanes meant to locate this quasi-legendary island is still a hotly debated issue, both in scholarly discussions and in thenationalistic discourse of various European countries.[18][19] The formScadinavia as the original home of theLangobards appears inPaul the Deacon'Historia Langobardorum,[20] but in other versions ofHistoria Langobardorum appear the formsScadan,Scandanan,Scadanan andScatenauge.[21] Frankish sources usedSconaowe andAethelweard, an Anglo-Saxon historian, usedScani.[22][23] InBeowulf, the formsScedenige andScedeland are used while theAlfredian translation ofOrosius andWulfstan's travel accounts used theOld EnglishSconeg.[23]
The earliestSámijoik texts written down refer to the world asSkadesi-suolu inNorthern Sámi andSkađsuâl inSkolt Sámi, meaning "Skaði's island". Svennung considers the Sámi name to have been introduced as aloanword from theNorth Germanic languages;[24] "Skaði" is thejötunn stepmother ofFreyr andFreyja inNorse mythology. It has been suggested that Skaði to some extent is modelled on a Sámi woman. The name for Skaði's fatherÞjazi is known in Sámi asČáhci, "the waterman"; and her son with Odin,Sæmingr, can be interpreted as a descendant ofSaam, the Sámi population.[25][26] Older joik texts give evidence of the old Sámi belief about living on an island and state that the wolf is known assuolu gievra, meaning "the strong one on the island". The Sámiplace nameSulliidčielbma means "the island's threshold" andSuoločielgi means "the island's back".
In recentsubstrate studies, Sámi linguists have examined the initial clustersk- in words used in the Sámi languages and concluded thatsk- is aphonotactic structure of non-Sámi origin.[27]
Reintroduction of the termScandinavia in the 18th century
Although the termScandinavia used by Pliny the Elder probably originated in the ancient Germanic languages, the modern formScandinavia does not descend directly from the ancient Germanic term. Rather the word was brought into use in Europe by scholars borrowing the term from ancient sources like Pliny, and was used vaguely for Scania and the southern region of the peninsula.[28]
The term was popularised by the linguistic and culturalScandinavist movement, which asserted the common heritage and cultural unity of the Scandinavian countries and rose to prominence in the 1830s.[28] The popular usage of the term in Sweden, Denmark and Norway as a unifying concept became established in the 19th century through poems such asHans Christian Andersen's "I am a Scandinavian" of 1839. After a visit to Sweden, Andersen became a supporter of early political Scandinavism. In a letter describing the poem to a friend, he wrote: "All at once I understood how related the Swedes, the Danes and the Norwegians are, and with this feeling I wrote the poem immediately after my return: 'We are one people, we are called Scandinavians!'".
Charles XV, king of Sweden, also proposed a unification of Denmark, Norway and Sweden into a single united kingdom. The background for the proposal was the tumultuous events during theNapoleonic Wars in the beginning of the century. This war resulted in Finland (formerly the eastern third of Sweden) becoming the RussianGrand Duchy of Finland in 1809 and Norway (de jure in union with Denmark since 1387, althoughde facto treated as a province) becoming independent in 1814, but thereafter swiftly forced to accept apersonal union with Sweden. The dependent territories Iceland, the Faroe Islands and Greenland, historically part of Norway, remained with Denmark in accordance with theTreaty of Kiel. Sweden and Norway were thus united under the Swedish monarch, but Finland's inclusion in theRussian Empire excluded any possibility for a political union between Finland and any of the other Nordic countries.
The end of the Scandinavian political movement came when Denmark was denied the military support promised from Sweden and Norway to annex the (Danish)Duchy of Schleswig, which together with the (German)Duchy of Holstein had been in personal union with Denmark. The Second war of Schleswig followed in 1864, a brief but disastrous war between Denmark andPrussia (supported by Austria).Schleswig-Holstein was conquered by Prussia and after Prussia's success in theFranco-Prussian War a Prussian-ledGerman Empire was created and a newpower-balance in theBaltic region was established. TheScandinavian Monetary Union, established in 1873, lasted untilWorld War I.
The termScandinavia (sometimes specified in English asContinental Scandinavia ormainland Scandinavia) is ordinarily used locally for Denmark, Norway and Sweden as a subset of the Nordic countries (known in Norwegian,Danish, andSwedish asNorden;Finnish:Pohjoismaat,Icelandic:Norðurlöndin,Faroese:Norðurlond).[29]
However, in English usage, the termScandinavia is sometimes used as a synonym or near-synonym for what are known locally asNordic countries.[30][31][32][5]
Usage in English is different from usage in the Scandinavian languages themselves (which useScandinavia in the narrow meaning), and by the fact that the question of whether a country belongs to Scandinavia is politicised. People from the Nordic world beyond Norway, Denmark and Sweden may be offended at being either included in or excluded from the category of "Scandinavia".[33]
Nordic countries is used unambiguously for Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Iceland, including their associated territories Greenland, the Faroe Islands and the Åland Islands.[34]
Thegeological termFennoscandia (sometimesFennoscandinavia) refers to the Fennoscandian Shield (orBaltic Shield), which includes the Scandinavian Peninsula, Finland andKarelia, and excludes Denmark and other parts of the wider Nordic world. The termsFennoscandia andFennoscandinavia are sometimes used in a political sense to refer to Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Finland.[35]
The termScandinavian may be used with two principal meanings, in an ethnic or cultural sense and as a modern and more inclusivedemonym.
In the ethnic or cultural sense, the termScandinavian traditionally refers tospeakers of Scandinavian languages, who are mainly descendants of the peoples historically known asNorsemen, but also to some extent of immigrants and others who have been assimilated into that culture and language.[citation needed] In this sense the term refers primarily to nativeDanes,Norwegians andSwedes as well as descendants of Scandinavian settlers such as theIcelanders and theFaroese. The term is also used in this ethnic sense, to refer to the modern descendants of the Norse, in studies of linguistics and culture.[36][37][38]
Additionally the term Scandinavian is used demonymically to refer to all modern inhabitants or citizens of Scandinavian countries. Within Scandinavia the demonymic term primarily refers to inhabitants or citizens of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. In English usage inhabitants or citizens of Iceland, the Faroe Islands and Finland are sometimes included as well. English general dictionaries often define the nounScandinavian demonymically as meaning any inhabitant of Scandinavia (which might be narrowly conceived or broadly conceived).[39][40][41]
There is a certain ambiguity and political contestation as to which peoples should be referred to as Scandinavian in this broader sense.Sámi people who live in Norway and Sweden are generally included as Scandinavians in the demonymic sense; the Sámi of Finland may be included in English usage, but usually not in local usage; the Sámi of Russia are not included. However, the use of the term "Scandinavian" with reference to the Sámi is complicated by the historical attempts by Scandinavian majority peoples and governments in Norway and Sweden to assimilate the Sámi people into the Scandinavian culture and languages, making the inclusion of the Sámi as "Scandinavians" controversial among many Sámi. Modern Sámi politicians and organizations often stress the status of the Sámi as a people separate from and equal to the Scandinavians, with their own language and culture, and are apprehensive about being included as "Scandinavians" in light of earlier Scandinavian assimilation policies.[42][43]
Most people in Scandinavia today speak Scandinavian languages that evolved fromOld Norse, originally spoken by ancient Germanic tribes in southern Scandinavia. The Continental Scandinavian languages—Danish,Norwegian andSwedish—form adialect continuum and are considered mutually intelligible. The Insular Scandinavian languages—Faroese andIcelandic—on the other hand, are only partially intelligible to speakers of the continental Scandinavian languages.
The Uralic languages are linguistically unrelated to the Scandinavian languages. Finnish is the majority language in Finland, and a recognized minority language in Sweden.Meänkieli andKven, sometimes considered as dialects of Finnish, are recognized minority languages in Sweden and Norway, respectively. TheSámi languages are indigenous minority languages in Scandinavia, spoken by theSámi people in northern Scandinavia.
The North Germanic languages of Scandinavia are traditionally divided into an East Scandinavian branch (Danish and Swedish) and a West Scandinavian branch (Norwegian, Icelandic and Faroese),[45][46] but because of changes appearing in the languages since 1600 the East Scandinavian and West Scandinavian branches are now usually reconfigured into Insular Scandinavian (ö-nordisk/øy-nordisk) featuring Icelandic and Faroese[47] and Continental Scandinavian (Skandinavisk), comprising Danish, Norwegian and Swedish.[48]
The modern division is based on the degree of mutual comprehensibility between the languages in the two branches.[49] The populations of the Scandinavian countries, with common Scandinavian roots in language, can—at least with some training—understand each other'sstandard languages as they appear in print and are heard on radio and television.
The reason Danish, Swedish and the two official written versions of Norwegian (Nynorsk andBokmål) are traditionally viewed as different languages, rather than dialects of one common language, is that each is a well-established standard language in its respective country.
Danish, Swedish and Norwegian have since medieval times been influenced to varying degrees byMiddle Low German and standard German. That influence was due not only to proximity, but also to the rule of Denmark—and later Denmark-Norway—over the German-speaking region of Holstein, and to Sweden's close trade with theHanseatic League.
Norwegians are accustomed to variation and may perceive Danish and Swedish only as slightly more distant dialects. This is because they have two official written standards, in addition to the habit of strongly holding on to local dialects. The people ofStockholm, Sweden andCopenhagen, Denmark have the greatest difficulty in understanding other Scandinavian languages.[50] In the Faroe Islands and Iceland, learning Danish is mandatory. This causes Faroese people as well as Icelandic people to become bilingual in two very distinct North Germanic languages, making it relatively easy for them to understand the other two Mainland Scandinavian languages.[51][52]
Although Iceland was under the political control of Denmark until a much later date (1918), very little influence and borrowing from Danish has occurred in the Icelandic language.[53] Icelandic remained the preferred language among the ruling classes in Iceland. Danish was not used for official communications, most of the royal officials were of Icelandic descent and the language of the church and law courts remained Icelandic.[54]
The Scandinavian languages are (as a language family) unrelated to Finnish and theSámi languages, which asUralic languages are distantly related to each other. Owing to the close proximity, there is still a great deal of borrowing from the Swedish and Norwegian languages in Finnish and Sámi.[55] The long history of linguistic influence of Swedish on Finnish is also due to the fact that Swedish was the dominant language when Finland was part of Sweden. Finnish-speakers had to learn Swedish in order to advance to higher positions of employment.[56] Swedish spoken in today's Finland includes a lot of words that are borrowed from Finnish, whereas the written language remains closer to that of Sweden.
Finland is officially bilingual, with Finnish and Swedish having mostly the same status at national level. Finland's majority population areFinns, whose mother tongue is either Finnish (approximately 95%), Swedish or both. The Swedish-speakers live mainly on the coastline starting from approximately the city ofPorvoo (Sw: Borgå) (in the Gulf of Finland) up to the city ofKokkola (Sw: Karleby) (in the Bay of Bothnia).[citation needed] The Swedish-speaking population is spread out in pockets in this coastal stretch and constitutes approximately 5% of the Finnish population.[57] The coastal province ofOstrobothnia has a Swedish-speaking majority, whereas plenty of areas on this coastline are nearly unilingually Finnish, like the region ofSatakunta.[citation needed] Åland, an autonomous province of Finland situated in the Baltic Sea between Finland and Sweden, are entirely Swedish-speaking. Children are taught the other official language at school: for Swedish-speakers this is Finnish (usually from the 3rd grade), while for Finnish-speakers it is Swedish (usually from the 3rd, 5th or 7th grade).[citation needed][58]
Finnish speakers constitute alanguage minority in both Sweden and Norway.Meänkieli andKven are Finnishdialects mainly spoken in the Swedish part of theTorne Valley and surrounding areas,[59] and in the Norwegian counties ofTroms andFinnmark, respectively.[60] Meänkieli has held an official status as a minority language in Sweden since 2000, and Kven in Norway since 2005.[61]
TheSámi languages are indigenous minority languages in Scandinavia.[62] They belong totheir own branch of theUralic language family and are unrelated to theNorth Germanic languages other than by limited grammatical (particularly lexical) characteristics resulting from prolonged contact.[55] Sámi is divided into several languages or dialects.[63]Consonant gradation is a feature in both Finnish and northern Sámi dialects, but it is not present in southern Sámi, which is considered to have a different language history. According to the Sámi Information Centre of theSámi Parliament of Sweden, southern Sámi may have originated in an earlier migration from the south into the Scandinavian Peninsula.[55]
A key ancient description of Scandinavia was provided byPliny the Elder, though his mentions ofScatinavia and surrounding areas are not always easy to decipher. Writing in the capacity of a Roman admiral, he introduces the northern region by declaring to his Roman readers that there are 23 islands "Romanis armis cognitae" ("known to Roman arms") in this area. According to Pliny, the "clarissima" ("most famous") of the region's islands isScatinavia, of unknown size. There live theHilleviones. The belief that Scandinavia was an island became widespread among classical authors during the 1st century and dominated descriptions of Scandinavia in classical texts during the centuries that followed.
Pliny begins his description of the route toScatinavia by referring to the mountain of Saevo (mons Saevo ibi), the Codanus Bay ("Codanus sinus") and the Cimbrian promontory.[65] The geographical features have been identified in various ways. By some scholars,Saevo is thought to be the mountainousNorwegian coast at the entrance toSkagerrak and theCimbrian peninsula is thought to beSkagen, the north tip ofJutland, Denmark. As described,Saevo andScatinavia can also be the same place.
Pliny mentions Scandinavia one more time: in Book VIII he says that the animal calledachlis (given in the accusative,achlin, which is not Latin) was born on the island of Scandinavia.[66] The animal grazes, has a big upper lip and some mythical attributes.
The Viking age in Scandinavia lasted from approximately 793–1066 AD and saw Scandinavians participate in large scale raiding, colonization, conquest and trading throughout Europe and beyond.[67][68] The period saw a big expansion of Scandinavian-conquered territory and of exploration. Utilizing their advancedlongships, they reached as far as North America, being the first Europeans to do so.[69] During this time Scandinavians were drawn to wealthy towns, monasteries and petty kingdoms overseas in places such as the British Isles, Ireland, the Baltic coast and Normandy, all of which made profitable targets for raids. Scandinavians, primarily from modern day Sweden, known asVarangians also ventured east into what is now Russia raiding along river trade routes. During this period unification also took place between different Scandinavian kingdoms culminating in the peak of theNorth Sea Empire which included large parts of Scandinavia and Great Britain.[70]
Norway (including Bohuslän, Härjedalen, Jämtland and Idre and Särna on the Scandinavian Peninsula and its island colonies Iceland, Greenland, Faroe Islands,Shetland,Orkney,Isle of Man and theHebrides)
According to historianSverre Bagge, the division into three Scandinavian kingdoms (Denmark, Sweden, Norway) makes sense geographically, as forests, mountains, and uninhabited land divided them from one another. Control of Norway was enabled through seapower, whereas control of the great lakes in Sweden enabled control of the kingdom, and control of Jutland was sufficient to control Denmark. The most contested area was the coastline from Oslo to Öresund, where the three kingdoms met.[72]
The three Scandinavian kingdoms joined in 1397 in theKalmar Union under QueenMargaret I of Denmark.[73] Sweden left the union in 1523 under KingGustav I of Sweden. In the aftermath of Sweden's secession from the Kalmar Union, civil war broke out in Denmark and Norway—the ProtestantReformation followed. When things had settled, the Norwegianprivy council was abolished—it assembled for the last time in 1537. Apersonal union, entered into by the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway in 1536, lasted until 1814. Three sovereignsuccessor states have subsequently emerged from this unequal union: Denmark, Norway and Iceland.
The borders between Denmark, Norway and Sweden acquired their present shape in the middle of the 17th century: In the 1645Treaty of Brömsebro,Denmark–Norway ceded the Norwegian provinces of Jämtland, Härjedalen and Idre and Särna, as well as the Baltic Sea islands of Gotland andÖsel (in Estonia) to Sweden. TheTreaty of Roskilde, signed in 1658, forced Denmark–Norway to cede the Danish provinces Scania, Blekinge, Halland,Bornholm and the Norwegian provinces ofBåhuslen andTrøndelag to Sweden. The 1660Treaty of Copenhagen forced Sweden to return Bornholm and Trøndelag to Denmark–Norway, and to give up its recent claims to the islandFunen.[74]
In the east, Finland was a fully incorporated part of Sweden from medieval times until the Napoleonic wars, when it was ceded to Russia. Despite many wars over the years since the formation of the three kingdoms, Scandinavia has been politically and culturally close.[75]
Denmark–Norway as a historiographical name refers to the former political union consisting of the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway, including the Norwegian dependencies of Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The corresponding adjective anddemonym isDano-Norwegian. During Danish rule, Norway kept its separate laws, coinage and army as well as some institutions such as a royalchancellor. Norway's old royal line had died out with the death ofOlav IV[76] in 1387, but Norway's remaining ahereditary kingdom became an important factor for theOldenburg dynasty of Denmark–Norway in its struggles to win elections as kings of Denmark.
TheTreaty of Kiel (14 January 1814) formally dissolved the Dano-Norwegian union and ceded the territory of Norway proper to the King of Sweden, but Denmark retained Norway's overseas possessions. However, widespread Norwegian resistance to the prospect of a union with Sweden induced the governor of Norway, crown prince Christian Frederick (laterChristian VIII of Denmark), to call a constituent assembly atEidsvoll in April 1814. The assembly drew up a liberal constitution and elected Christian Frederick to the throne of Norway. Following a Swedish invasion during the summer, the peace conditions of theConvention of Moss (14 August 1814) specified that king Christian Frederik had to resign, but Norway would keep its independence and its constitution within a personal union with Sweden. Christian Frederik formally abdicated on 10 August 1814 and returned to Denmark. The Norwegian parliamentStorting elected kingCharles XIII of Sweden as king of Norway on 4 November.
Measured in per capita GDP, the Nordic countries are among the richest in the world.[77] There is agenerous welfare system in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden.[78] These economies have been marked by large public sectors, extensive and generous welfare systems, a high level of taxation and considerable state involvement.[79]
Various promotional agencies of the Nordic countries such as theNorwegian Trekking Association, theSwedish Tourist Association, and in the United States (The American-Scandinavian Foundation established in 1910 by theDanish American industrialist Niels Poulsen) serve to promote market and tourism interests in the region. Today, the five Nordic heads of state act as the organization's patrons and according to the official statement by the organization its mission is "to promote the Nordic region as a whole while increasing the visibility of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden in New York City and the United States".[80] The official tourist boards of Scandinavia sometimes cooperate under one umbrella, such as theScandinavian Tourist Board.[81] The cooperation was introduced for the Asian market in 1986, when the Swedish national tourist board joined the Danish national tourist board to coordinate intergovernmental promotion of the two countries. Norway's government entered one year later. All five Nordic governments participate in the joint promotional efforts in the United States through the Scandinavian Tourist Board of North America.[82]
^"Samisk".Språkrådet.Archived from the original on 21 November 2022. Retrieved17 November 2022.
^ab"Definition of Scandinavia in English". Oxford Dictionaries. Archived fromthe original on 24 December 2016. Retrieved23 December 2016.A large peninsula in north-western Europe, occupied by Norway and Sweden [...] A cultural region consisting of the countries of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark and sometimes also of Iceland, Finland, and the Faroe Islands
^abc"Scandinavia".Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.Archived from the original on 11 May 2015. Retrieved28 October 2009.Scandinavia, historically Scandia, part ofNorthern Europe, generally held to consist of the two countries of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Norway and Sweden, with the addition of Denmark. Some authorities argue for the inclusion of Finland on geologic and economic grounds and of Iceland and the Faroe Islands on the grounds that their inhabitants speak Scandinavian languages related to those of Norway and Sweden and also have similar cultures.
^"Nordic countries".Britannica. 14 May 2024. Retrieved28 June 2024.The term [Nordic] is sometimes used interchangeably with Scandinavia. [...] Scandinavia is typically defined more restrictively, however, and refers primarily to Norway, Sweden, and Denmark.
^Hoppenbrouwers, Peter (2005).Medieval Peoples Imagined. Working Paper No. 3, Department of European Studies, University of Amsterdam,ISSN1871-1693, p. 8: "A second core area was the quasi-legendary 'Isle of Scanza', the vague indication of Scandinavia in classical ethnography, and a veritable 'hive of races and a womb of peoples' according to Jordanes' Gothic History. Not only the Goths were considered to have originated there, but also the Dacians/Danes, the Lombards, and the Burgundians—claims that are still subject to debate."
^Goffart, Walter (2005), "Jordanes's Getica and the disputed authenticity of Gothic origins from Scandinavia".Speculum. A Journal of Medieval Studies 80, 379–98
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^Steinsland, Gro (1991).Det hellige bryllup og norrøn kongeideologi. En analyse av hierogami-myten i Skírnismál, Ynglingatal, Háleygjatal og Hyndluljóð [The sacred wedding and Norse royal ideology. An analysis of the hierogamy myth in Skírnismál, Ynglingatal, Háleygjatal and Hyndluljóð] (in Norwegian). Oslo: Solum.
^Aikio, A. (2004)."An essay on substrate studies and the origin of Saami"(PDF). In Hyvärinen, Irma; Kallio, Petri; Korhonen, Jarmo (eds.).Etymologie, Entlehnungen und Entwicklungen: Festschrift für Jorma Koivulehto zum 70. Geburtstag. Mémoires de la Société Néophilologique de Helsinki 63 [Etymology, borrowings and developments: Festschrift for Jorma Koivulehto's 70th birthday. Memoirs of the Neophilological Society of Helsinki 63]. Helsinki. pp. 5–34. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 16 February 2008.On the basis of Scandinavian loanwords it can be inferred that bothsk- and-ʃ- were adopted in the west during the early separate development of the Saami languages, but never spread to Kola Saami. These areal features thus emerged in a phase when Proto-Saami began to diverge into dialects anticipating the modern Saami languages.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^"Scandinavia".Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia.Microsoft. 1997–2007. Archived fromthe original on 28 October 2009. Retrieved30 January 2007.Scandinavia (ancient Scandia), name applied collectively to three countries of northern Europe—Norway, Sweden (which together form the Scandinavian Peninsula) and Denmark.
^"Scandinavia".The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2008.Archived from the original on 19 December 2007. Retrieved9 January 2008.Scandinavia: Denmark, Norway, Sweden—sometimes also considered to include Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, & Finland.
^Knut Helle, 'IntroductionArchived 18 November 2022 at theWayback Machine', inThe Cambridge History of Scandinavia, Volume I: Prehistory to 1520, ed. by Knut Helle, E. I. Kouri, and Jens E. Oleson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 1–14 (pp. 1–4).
^Olwig, Kenneth R. "Introduction: The Nature of Cultural Heritage, and the Culture of Natural Heritage—Northern Perspectives on a Contested Patrimony".International Journal of Heritage Studies, Vol. 11, No. 1, March 2005, pp. 3–7.
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^Spaeth, John Duncan Ernst (1921).Old English Poetry.Princeton University Press.The main divisions of Germanic are: 1. East Germanic, including the Goths, both Ostrogoths and Visigoths. 2. North Germanic, including the Scandinavians, Danes, Icelanders, Swedes, "Norsemen." 3. West Germanic. The Old English (Anglo-Saxons) belong to this division, of which the continental representatives are the Teutonic peoples, High and Low Franks and Saxons, Alemanni, etc.
^abcInez Svonni Fjällström (2006)."A language with deep roots"Archived 5 October 2007 at theWayback Machine.Sápmi: Language history, 14 November 2006. Samiskt Informationscentrum Sametinget: "The Scandinavian languages are Northern Germanic languages. [...] Sami belongs to the Finno-Ugric language family. Finnish, Estonian, Livonian and Hungarian belong to the same language family and are consequently related to each other."
^Pliny the Elder.Naturalis Historia.Book IV, chapter XXXIXArchived 14 May 2008 at theWayback Machine. Ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff. Online version at Persus. Retrieved 2 October 2007.
^Pliny the Elder.Naturalis Historia.Book VIII, chapter XVIIArchived 14 May 2008 at theWayback Machine. Ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff. Online version at Persus. Retrieved 2 October 2007.
^Mawer, Allen (1913).The Vikings.Cambridge University Press. p. 1.The term 'Viking' is derived from the Old Norsevík, a bay, and means 'one who haunts a bay, creek or fjord'. In the 9th and 10th centuries it came to be used more especially of those warriors who left their homes in Scandinavia and made raids on the chief European countries. This is the narrow, and technically the only correct use of the term 'Viking,' but in such expressions as 'Viking civilisation,' 'the Viking Age,' 'the Viking movement,' 'Viking influence,' the word has come to have a wider significance and is used as a concise and convenient term for describing the whole of the civilisation, activity and influence of the Scandinavian peoples, at a particular period in their history…
^Sawyer, Peter H. (1995).Scandinavians and the English in the Viking Age.University of Cambridge. p. 3.ISBN095173394X.Archived from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved23 April 2023.The Viking period is, therefore, best defined as the period when Scandinavians played a large role in the British Isles and western Europe as raiders and conquerors. It is also the period in which Scandinavians settled in many of the areas they conquered, and in the Atlantic islands...
Bendixsen, Synnøve; Bringslid, Mary Bente; Vike, Halvard, eds. (2017).Egalitarianism in Scandinavia: historical and contemporary approaches. Approaches to social inequality and difference. New York, NY:Springer International.ISBN978-3-319-59790-4.
Gron, Kurt J.; Sørensen, Lasse (August 2018). "Cultural and economic negotiation: a new perspective on the Neolithic Transition of Southern Scandinavia".Antiquity.92 (364):958–974.doi:10.15184/aqy.2018.71.ISSN0003-598X.
Rom-Jensen, Byron (August 2017). "A Model of Social Security?: The political usage of Scandinavia in Roosevelt's New Deal".Scandinavian Journal of History.42 (4):363–388.doi:10.1080/03468755.2017.1336598.ISSN0346-8755.
Kröger, Teppo (1997). "Local government in Scandinavia: autonomous or integrated into the welfare state?". In Sipilä, Jorma (ed.).Social care services: the key to the Scandinavian welfare model. Aldershot, Hants, England: Avebury. pp. 95–108.ISBN978-1-85972-403-3.
vifanord – a digital library that provides scientific information on the Nordic and Baltic countries as well as the Baltic region as a whole (archived)
Expat Scandinavia – site with useful information for expats in Scandinavia
