The area of the modern state of Saxony should not be confused withOld Saxony, the area inhabited bySaxons. Old Saxony corresponds roughly to the modern German states ofLower Saxony,Saxony-Anhalt, and the Westphalian portion ofNorth Rhine-Westphalia. Historically the region of Saxony has sometimes been referred to as Upper Saxony or Obersachsen in German to distinguish it from Lower Saxony.
The state is also home to a minority ofSorbs, aWest Slavic ethnic group native to the area, numbering an estimated 80,000 people.[5]
Saxony has a long history as aduchy, anelectorate of theHoly Roman Empire (theElectorate of Saxony), and finally as akingdom (theKingdom of Saxony). In 1918, after Germany's defeat inWorld War I, its monarchy was overthrown and a republican form of government was established under the current name. The state was broken up into smaller units during communist rule (1949–1989), but was re-established on 3 October 1990 on the reunification ofEast andWest Germany.
In prehistoric times, the territory of present-day Saxony was the site of some of the largest of the ancient central Europeanmonumental temples, dating from the fifth millennium BC. Notable archaeological sites have been discovered in Dresden and the villages of Eythra andZwenkau near Leipzig. TheGermanic presence in the territory of today's Saxony is thought to have begun in the first century BC.
Parts of Saxony were possibly under the control of the Germanic KingMarobod during the Roman empire era. By the late Roman period, several tribes known as theSaxons emerged, from which the subsequent state(s) draw their name.
Since the late 6th century, the territory of modern-day Saxony and parts of Thuringia was populated byPolabian Slavs, most prominently theSorbs. It was conquered byFrancia and subsequently organized as theSorbian March.[6][7] A legacy of this period is the modern ethnic group ofSorbs in Saxony. Eastern and western[8] parts of present Saxony were ruled byBohemia at various times between 1075 and 1635 (with some intermissions), andSchirgiswalde (Upper Sorbian:Šěrachów;Czech:Šerachov) remained a Bohemian exclave until 1809. Eastern parts were also ruled by Poland between 1002 and 1032, by theDuchy of Jawor, the southwesternmost duchy of fragmentedPiast-ruled Poland, from 1319 to 1346,[9][10] and byHungary from 1469 to 1490,[11] andPechern (Upper Sorbian:Pěchč) was part of theDuchy of Żagań, one of theLower Silesian duchies formed in the course of the medieval fragmentation of Poland,[12] remaining under the Piast dynasty until 1472.
The first medievalDuchy of Saxony was a lateEarly Middle Ages "Carolingianstem duchy", which emerged around the start of the 8th century AD and grew to include the greater part of NorthernGermany, what are now the modern German states ofBremen,Hamburg,Lower Saxony,North Rhine-Westphalia,Schleswig-Holstein andSaxony-Anhalt. Saxons converted to Christianity during this period, withCharlemagne outlawing pagan practices.[13] This geographical region is unrelated to present-day Saxony but the name moved southwards due to certain historical events (see below).
The territory of the Free State of Saxony became part of theHoly Roman Empire by the 10th century, when the dukes of Saxony were also kings (or emperors) of the Holy Roman Empire, comprising theOttonian, or Saxon, dynasty. TheMargravate of Meissen was founded in 985 as afrontier march, that soon extended to theKwisa (Queis) river to the east and as far as the Ore Mountains. In the process ofOstsiedlung, settlement of German farmers in the sparsely populated area was promoted. Around this time, theBillungs, aSaxon noble family, received extensive lands in Saxony. The emperor eventually gave them the title ofdukes of Saxony. AfterDuke Magnus died in 1106, causing the extinction of the male line of Billungs, oversight of the duchy was given toLothar of Supplinburg, who also became emperor for a short time.
In 1137, control of Saxony passed to theGuelph dynasty, descendants of Wulfhild Billung, eldest daughter of the last Billung duke, and the daughter of Lothar of Supplinburg. In 1180 large portions west of the Weser were ceded to theBishops of Cologne, while some central parts between the Weser and the Elbe remained with the Guelphs, becoming later the Duchy ofBrunswick-Lüneburg. The remaining eastern lands, together with the title of Duke of Saxony, passed to anAscanian dynasty (descended fromEilika Billung, Wulfhild's younger sister) and were divided in 1260 into the two small states ofSaxe-Lauenburg andSaxe-Wittenberg. The former state was also namedLower Saxony, the latterUpper Saxony, thence the later names of the twoImperial Circles Saxe-Lauenburg and Saxe-Wittenberg. Both claimed the Saxonelectoral privilege for themselves, but theGolden Bull of 1356 accepted only Wittenberg's claim, with Lauenburg nevertheless continuing to maintain its claim. In 1422, when the Saxon electoral line of the Ascanians became extinct, the AscanianEric V of Saxe-Lauenburg tried to reunite the Saxon duchies.
However,Sigismund,King of the Romans, had already granted MargraveFrederick IV the Warlike ofMeissen (House of Wettin) an expectancy of the Saxon electorate in order to remunerate his military support. On 1 August 1425 Sigismund enfeoffed the Wettinian Frederick as Prince-Elector of Saxony, despite the protests of Eric V. Thus the Saxon territories remained permanently separated.
TheElectorate of Saxony was then merged with the much larger WettinianMargraviate of Meissen; however, it used the higher-ranking title Electorate of Saxony and even the Ascanian coat-of-arms for the entire monarchy.[14] Thus Saxony came to includeDresden andMeissen. Hence, the territory of the modern Free State of Saxony shares the name with the old Saxon stem duchy for historical and dynastic reasons rather than any significant ethnic, linguistic or cultural connection. In the 18th and 19th centuries Saxe-Lauenburg was colloquially called theDuchy of Lauenburg, which was held in a personal union by theElectorate of Hanover from the 18th century to the Napoleonic wars, and in a personal union with Denmark (along with neighbouringHolstein andSchleswig) for much the 19th century. In 1876 it was absorbed intoPrussia as theDuchy of Lauenburg district of theProvince of Schleswig-Holstein).
Saxe-Wittenberg, mostly in modernSaxony-Anhalt, became subject to themargravate of Meissen, ruled by theWettin dynasty in 1423. This established a new and powerful state, occupying large portions of the present Free State of Saxony, Thuringia, Saxony-Anhalt and Bavaria (Coburg and its environs). Although the centre of this state was far to the southeast of the former Saxony, it came to be referred to asUpper Saxony and then simplySaxony, while the former Saxon territories in the north were now known asLower Saxony (the modern termNiedersachsen deriving from this).
In 1485, Saxony was split in theTreaty of Leipzig. A collateral line of the Wettin princes received what later becameThuringia and founded several small states there (seeErnestine duchies). Since these princes were allowed to use the Saxon coat of arms, in many towns of Thuringia, the coat of arms can still be found in historical buildings.
The remaining Saxon state became still more powerful, receivingUpper andLower Lusatia in thePeace of Prague (1635). It also became known in the 18th century for its cultural achievements, although it was politically weaker thanPrussia andAustria, states which oppressed Saxony from the north and south, respectively.
In 1806, French EmperorNapoleon abolished theHoly Roman Empire and established the Electorate of Saxony as a kingdom in exchange for military support. TheElector Frederick Augustus III accordingly became KingFrederick Augustus I of Saxony. Frederick Augustus remained loyal to Napoleon during the wars that swept Europe in the following years; he was taken prisoner and his territories were declared forfeit by the allies in 1813, after the defeat of Napoleon. Prussia intended the annexation of Saxony but the opposition ofAustria, France, and theUnited Kingdom to this plan resulted in the restoration of Frederick Augustus to his throne at theCongress of Vienna although he was forced to cede the northern part of the kingdom to Prussia, which led to the loss of nearly 60% of the Saxon territory,[17] and 40% of its population. Most of these lands were merged with theDuchy of Magdeburg, theAltmark and some smaller territories to become the PrussianProvince of Saxony, a predecessor of the modern state ofSaxony-Anhalt.Lower Lusatia and part of the former Saxe-Wittenberg territory became part of theProvince of Brandenburg and the northeastern part ofUpper Lusatia became part of theProvince of Silesia. Therump Kingdom of Saxony had roughly the same extent as the present state, albeit slightly smaller.
Saxony before the Congress of Vienna compared to present-day Saxony
Meanwhile, in 1815, the Kingdom of Saxony joined theGerman Confederation.[18] In the politics of the Confederation, Saxony was overshadowed by Prussia and Austria. KingAnthony of Saxony came to the throne of Saxony in 1827. Shortly thereafter, liberal pressures in Saxony mounted and broke out in revolt during 1830—ayear of revolution in Europe.[18] The revolution in Saxony resulted in a constitution for the Kingdom of Saxony that served as the basis for its government until 1918.[18]
In 1854 Frederick Augustus II's brother, KingJohn of Saxony, succeeded to the throne. A scholar, King John translatedDante.[18] King John followed a federalistic and pro-Austrian policy throughout the early 1860s until the outbreak of theAustro-Prussian War. During that war, Prussian troops overran Saxony without resistance and then invaded AustrianBohemia.[19] After the war, Saxony was forced to pay an indemnity and to join theNorth German Confederation in 1867.[20] Under the terms of the North German Confederation, Prussia took over control of the Saxon postal system, railroads, military and foreign affairs.[20] In theFranco-Prussian War of 1870, Saxon troops fought together with Prussian and other German troops against France.[20] In 1871, Saxony joined the newly formedGerman Empire.[20]
As the war drew to its end, U.S. troops under GeneralGeorge Patton occupied the western part of Saxony in April 1945, whileSoviet troops occupied the eastern part. That summer, the entire state was handed over to Soviet forces as agreed in theLondon Protocol of September 1944. Britain, the US, and the USSR then negotiated Germany's future at thePotsdam Conference. Under thePotsdam Agreement, all German territory East of theOder-Neisse line was annexed by Poland and the Soviet Union, and, unlike in the aftermath ofWorld War I, the annexing powers were allowed to expel the inhabitants. During the following three years,Poland andCzechoslovakia expelled German-speaking people from their territories, and some of these expellees came to Saxony. Only a small area of Saxony lying east of theNeisse River and centred around the town ofReichenau (Bogatynia) was annexed by Poland. Traditional close relations of Saxony with neighbouring German-speakingEgerland were thus completely destroyed, making the border of Saxony along theOre Mountains a linguistic border.
The Free State of Saxony was reconstituted with slightly altered borders in 1990, followingGerman reunification. Besides the formerly Silesian area of Saxony, which was mostly included in the territory of the new Saxony, the free state gained further areas north ofLeipzig that had belonged toSaxony-Anhalt until 1952.
There are numerous rivers in Saxony. TheElbe is the most dominant one. TheNeisse defines the border between Saxony and Poland. Other rivers include theMulde and theWhite Elster.
The largest cities and towns in Saxony according to the 31 July 2022 estimate are listed below.[26] Leipzig forms aconurbation withHalle, known asBallungsraum Leipzig/Halle.[27] The latter city is located just across the border ofSaxony-Anhalt. Leipzig shares, for instance, anS-train system (known asS-Bahn Mitteldeutschland)[28] and an airport[29] with Halle.
CDU/CSU received 21.8% of the votes in Saxony and became the second strongest party in the 2024 EP election.BSW was in the third place by receiving 12.6% of the votes.The Left lost a significant proportion of their votes compared to the 2019 election. Their votes regressed from 11.7% to 4.9%.[32]
Between 1990 and 2008, Saxony was divided into the three regions (Regierungsbezirke) ofChemnitz,Dresden, andLeipzig. The1994–1996 Saxony district reform created 22 new districts and seven independent cities. After the2008 Saxony district reform, these regions – with some alterations of their respective areas – were calledDirektionsbezirke. In 2012, the authorities of these regions were merged into one central authority, theLandesdirektion Sachsen [de].
Saxony is a densely populated state if compared with more rural German states such asBavaria orLower Saxony. However, the population has declined over time. The population of Saxony began declining in the 1950s due to emigration, a process which accelerated after the fall of theBerlin Wall in 1989. After bottoming out in 2013, the population has stabilized due to increased immigration and higher fertility rates. The cities of Leipzig, Dresden and Chemnitz, and the towns of Radebeul and Markkleeberg in their vicinity, have seen their populations increase since 2000. The following tables illustrate the foreign resident populations and the population of Saxony from 1816 to 2022:
Significant foreign resident populations as of 31 December[33]
The average number of children per woman in Saxony was 1.60 in 2018, the fourth-highest rate of all German states.[34] Within Saxony, the highest is theBautzen district with 1.77, while Leipzig is the lowest with 1.49. Dresden's fertility rate of 1.58 is the highest of all German cities with more than 500,000 inhabitants.
Saxony is home to theSorbs. There are currently between 45,000 and 60,000 Sorbs living in Saxony (Upper Lusatia region).[35][36] Today's Sorb minority is the remainder of the Slavic population that settled throughout Saxony in the early Middle Ages and over time slowly assimilated into the German speaking society. Many geographic names in Saxony are of Sorbic origin (including the three largest citiesChemnitz,Dresden andLeipzig). The Sorbic language and culture are protected by special laws and cities and villages in eastern Saxony that are inhabited by a significant number of Sorbian inhabitants have bilingual street signs and administrative offices provide service in both, German and Sorbian. The Sorbs enjoy cultural self-administration which is exercised through theDomowina. FormerMinister PresidentStanislaw Tillich is of Sorbian ancestry and has been the first leader of a German state from a national minority.
As of 2011, 72.6% of people are not affiliated with any religion. TheProtestant Church in Germany represents the largestChristian denomination in the state, adhered to by 21.4% of the population. Members of theRoman Catholic Church formed a minority of 3.8%. About 0.9% of the Saxons belonged to an Evangelicalfree church (Evangelische Freikirche, i.e. various Protestants outside the EKD), 0.3% to Orthodox churches and 1% to other religious communities.[37] TheMoravian Church (see above) still maintains its religious centre in Herrnhut and it is there where 'TheDaily Watchwords' (Losungen) are selected each year which are in use in many churches worldwide. In particular in the larger cities, there are numerous smaller religious communities.
The internationalChurch of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has a presence in theFreiberg Germany Temple which was the first of its kind in Germany, opened in 1985 even before its counterpart in Western Germany. It now also serves as a religious center for the church members in Poland, the Czech Republic,Slovakia, andHungary.[38] In Leipzig, there is a significantBuddhist community, which mainly caters to the population of Vietnamese origin, with one Buddhist temple built in 2008 and another one currently under construction.[39] TheSikh faith also maintains a presence in Saxony's three largest cities with three (though small)Gurdwara.[40]
TheGross domestic product (GDP) of the state was 124.6 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 3.7% of German economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 28,100 euros or 93% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 85% of the EU average. The GDP per capita was the highest of the states of the former GDR.[41] Saxony has a "very high"Human Development Index value of 0.930 (2018), which is at the same level as Denmark.[42] Within Germany Saxony isranked 9th.
Unemployment rate
Year
%
1999
17.2
2000
17.0
2001
17.5
2002
17.8
2003
17.9
2004
17.8
2005
18.3
2006
17.0
2007
14.7
2008
12.8
2009
12.9
Year
%
2010
11.8
2011
10.6
2012
09.8
2013
09.8
2014
08.8
2015
08.2
2016
07.5
2017
06.7
2018
06.0
2019
05.5
Saxony has, after Saxony-Anhalt,[43] the most vibrant economy of the states of the formerEast Germany (GDR). Its economy grew by 1.9% in 2010.[44] Nonetheless, unemployment remains above the German average. The eastern part of Germany, excludingBerlin, qualifies as an "Objective 1" development-region within theEuropean Union, and was eligible to receive investment subsidies up to 30% until 2013.[45]FutureSAX, a business plan competition and entrepreneurial support organisation, has been in operation since 2002.[46]
Microchip-makers near Dresden have given the region the nickname "Silicon Saxony". The publishing and porcelain industries of the region are well known, although their contributions to the regional economy are no longer significant. Today, the automobile industry, machinery production, and services mainly contribute to the economic development of the region.
Saxony reported an average unemployment of 5.5% in 2019.[47]
The Leipzig area, which until recently was among the regions with the highest unemployment rate, could benefit greatly from investments byPorsche andBMW. With theVW Phaeton factory in Dresden, and many parts suppliers, the automobile industry has again become one of the pillars of Saxon industry, as it was in the early 20th century.Zwickau is another major Volkswagen location.Freiberg, a former mining town, has emerged as a foremost location for solar technology. Dresden and some other regions of Saxony play a leading role in some areas of international biotechnology, such as electronic bioengineering. While these high-technology sectors do not yet offer a large number of jobs, they have stopped or even reversed thebrain drain that was occurring until the early 2000s in many parts of Saxony.[48] Regional universities have strengthened their positions by partnering with local industries.Glashütte is the birthplace of theGerman watchmaking industry and home to highly regarded watch manufacturers such asA. Lange & Söhne andGlashütte Original.
Saxony is a strongly export-oriented economy. In 2018, exports amounted to 40.48 billion euros while imports stood at 24.41 billion euros. The largest export partner of Saxony isChina with an amount of 6.72 billion euros, while the second largest export market are the United States with 3.59 billion.[49] The largest exporting sectors are the automobile industry and mechanical engineering.
In April 2022, Saxony received about 84% of its imported oil and gas from Russia while nationally Germany only imported about one third from Russia.[50] This is mainly due to the pipeline network, which since the time of the GDR has been strongly integrated with the Soviet Union, similar to other states of Eastern Europe.[51]
TheDresden University of Technology (TU Dresden), founded in 1828, is one of Germany's oldest universities, and one of the ten largest universities in Germany. It is a member ofTU9, a consortium of nine leading German Institutes of Technology.
Boundary sign ofBautzen / Budyšin inGerman andUpper Sorbian. Many place names in eastern Saxony are derived from Sorbian.
The most commonpatois spoken in Saxony are combined in the group of "Thuringian andUpper Saxon dialects". Due to the inexact use of the term "Saxon dialects" in colloquial language, the Upper Saxon attribute has been added to distinguish it fromOld Saxon andLow Saxon. Other German dialects spoken in Saxony are the dialects of theOre Mountains, which have been affected by Upper Saxon dialects, and the dialects of the Vogtland, which are more affected by theEast Franconian languages.
Upper Sorbian (aWest Slavic language) is spoken in the parts ofUpper Lusatia that are inhabited by the Sorbian minority. The Germans in Upper Lusatia speak distinct dialects of their own (Lusatian dialects).
TheElectoral Saxony, a predecessor of today's Saxony, was the original birthplace of the Reformation. Theelector was Lutheran starting in 1525. The Lutheran church was organized through the late 1510s and the early 1520s. It wasofficially established in 1527 byJohn the Steadfast. Although some of the sites associated withMartin Luther also lie in the current state of Saxony-Anhalt (includingWittenberg,Eisleben andMansfeld), today's Saxony is usually viewed as the formal successor to what used to be Luther's country back in the 16th century (i.e. the Electoral Saxony).
Martin Luther personally oversaw the Lutheran church in Saxony and shaped it consistently withhis own views and ideas. The 16th, 17th and 18th centuries were heavily dominated byLutheran orthodoxy. In addition, theReformed faith made inroads with the so-calledcrypto Calvinists, but was strongly persecuted in an overwhelmingly Lutheran state. In the 17th century,Pietism became an important influence. In the 18th century, theMoravian Church was set up onCount von Zinzendorf's property atHerrnhut. From 1525, the rulers were traditionally Lutheran and widely acknowledged asdefenders of the Protestant faith, although – beginning withAugustus II the Strong, who was required to convert to Roman Catholicism in 1697 in order to become King of Poland – its monarchs were exclusively Roman Catholic. That meant Augustus and the subsequent Electors of Saxony, who were Roman Catholic, ruled over a state with an almost entirely Protestant population.
In 1925, 90.3% of the Saxon population was Protestant, 3.6% was Roman Catholic, 0.4% was Jewish and 5.7% was placed in other religious categories.[56]
After World War II, Saxony was incorporated into East Germany which pursued a policy ofstate atheism. After 45 years of Communist rule, the majority of the population has become unaffiliated. Nonetheless, even during this time Saxony remained an important place of religious dialogue and it was atMeissen where the agreement on mutual recognition between the German Evangelical Church and theChurch of England was signed in 1988.[57]
In 2020, there were 4,447 registered sports clubs of various disciplines with over 600,000 members in Saxony.[58] The most popular sport in Saxony isfootball. WithRB Leipzig there is one Saxon team playing in theBundesliga as well as the EuropeanChampions League. Leipzig is notable for a longstanding football tradition, a Leipzigteam having been the first national football champion in German history. Another popular sport ishandball withSC DHfK Leipzig playing in theBundesliga. On a local level sports such astable tennis,cycling,mountaineering andvolleyball are popular.
Saxony prides itself to have been one of the first places in the world where modern recreational rock climbing was developed.Falkenstein rock in the area ofBad Schandau is considered to be the place were the German rock climbing tradition started in 1864.
The Ore Mountains in southern Saxony are a traditional center for winter sports, and there are a number of training facilities for the German Winter Olympics team in the region. Thus, climate change poses a certain threat to the development of the region's winter sports industry.
The ski resort ofOberwiesenthal is the highest town of Germany, at an altitude of 900 m, though the surrounding mountains do not reach the same height as those found in the alpine areas ofSouthern Germany.
The 'Dresden Green Diamond' – the largest natural green diamond – is part of the collection of theGreen Vault.
The two major cultural centers of Saxony areDresden andLeipzig. The two cities have each a unique character which is reflecting the role they played throughout Saxon and German history, Dresden being a political center while Leipzig has been a major trading city. Thus, Dresden is well known for the art collections of the former Saxon kings (Dresden State Art Collections with theGreen Vault andZwinger as the most well-known parts).
Leipzig on the other hand never had a royal court, so its culture is borne largely by its citizens. The city is famous for its relationship with classical music and names likeJohann Sebastian Bach,Mendelssohn orWagner are linked to it. Over the past decades the city became famous for its modern art scene, most notably the Neue Leipziger Schule (New Leipzig School) with artists such asNeo Rauch.
Saxony was the first place in Europe to develop and produce whiteporcelain, a luxury good until then imported only from China. TheMeissen Porcelain manufactory has been producing porcelain since 1710. It is one of the world's leading porcelain manufacturers and one of the oldest and most internationally known German luxury brands.[59]
Saxon cuisine encompasses regional cooking traditions of Saxony. In general the cuisine is very hearty and features many peculiarities of Mid-Germany such as a great variety ofsauces which accompany themain dish and the fashion to serve potato dumplings (Klöße/Knödel) as aside dish instead ofpotatoes,pasta orrice. Also muchfreshwater fish is used in Saxon cuisine. The area around Dresden is home to the easternmost wine region in Germany (see:Saxony (wine region)).
Saxony (as other German states) has its own anthem, dating back to the monarchy of the 19th century. 'Gott segne Sachsenland' (God save Saxony) is based on the melody ofGod save the King.
Leipzig/Halle Airport which provides flights to other parts of Germany and other European destinations. The airport also serves as the main European hub for cargo flights operated byDHL Aviation and the main hub forAeroLogic.
Dresden Airport also provides flights to other parts of Germany and other European destinations.
^Bogusławski, Wilhelm (1861).Rys dziejów serbo-łużyckich (in Polish). Petersburg. p. 142.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Rieck, Gisela (2014). "Herzog Heinrich von Jauer herrscht über die östliche Oberlausitz".Ora et labora (in German). No. 49. Ostritz: Freundeskreis der Abtei St. Marienthal. p. 17.
^Köhler, Gustav (1846).Der Bund der Sechsstädte in der Ober-Lausitz: Eine Jubelschrift (in German). Görlitz: G. Heinze & Comp. p. 30.
^Gemeinde Krauschwitz i.d. O.L. (in German). p. 9.
^Sadowski, Aleksander Marek (2022). "Sachsen und Polen – Tausend Jahre Nachbarschaft / Polska i Saksonia – tysiąc lat sąsiedztwa".Polonus (in German and Polish). No. 5. Ostritz. p. 39.ISSN2701-6285.
^Sturm, Reinhard (23 December 2011)."Kampf um die Republik 1919–1923" [Battle for the Republic 1919–1923].Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung (in German). Retrieved6 May 2023.
^eCommerce, Deutsche Bahn AG, Unternehmensbereich Personenverkehr, Marketing."S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland".S-bahn-mitteldeutschland.de. Archived fromthe original on 24 February 2018. Retrieved5 November 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^E-Mail, Annegret Müller Referentin Öffentlichkeitsarbeit / Pressesprecherin +49 341 21631-14."Pressemitteilungen".Landessportbund Sachsen (in German). Archived fromthe original on 10 July 2020. Retrieved25 May 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
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