The Sava is 990 kilometres (615 miles) long, including the 45-kilometre (28 mi)Sava Dolinkaheadwater rising inZelenci, Slovenia. It is the largesttributary of the Danube by volume of water, and the second-largest after theTisza in terms of catchment area (97713km²) and length. It drains a significant portion of theDinaric Alps region, through the major tributaries ofDrina,Bosna,Kupa,Una,Vrbas,Lonja,Kolubara,Bosut andKrka. The Sava is one of the longestrivers in Europe and among the longest tributaries of another river.
The population in the Sava River basin is estimated at 8,176,000, and is shared by three capital cities:Ljubljana,Zagreb and Belgrade. The Sava is about2⁄3-navigable for larger vessels: from the confluence of the Kupa inSisak a few kilometers below Zagreb.
The name is believed to be derived from the Proto-Indo-European root*sewh1- 'to press, push (forth); to take liquid, water' (whence the English wordsup) and the ending*eh2, so that it literally means 'that which waters [the ground]'.[5] Theancient Greeks called it Saos (Ancient Greek:Σάος).[6][7]Strabo writes inGeographica 4.6.10 (composed between 20 BC and AD 20) of theSaüs,[8] and the Romans used the nameSavus. Another name, used by Strabo for the Sava in its entirety or its lower part, isNoarus.[9]
The Sava Bohinjka originates inRibčev Laz, at the confluence of theJezernica,[16] a short watercourse flowing out fromLake Bohinj and theMostnica River.[17] Some sources define the Jezernica as a part of the Sava Bohinjka, specifying the latter as flowing directly out of the lake,[18] while another group of sources include theSavica, rising at the southern flank ofTriglav as the 78-metre (256 ft)Savica Falls,[19] downstream fromTriglav Lakes Valley, and flowing into the lake, as a part of the Sava Bohinjka.[20] The watercourse flows 41 kilometres (25 miles)—including the length of the Savica—east toRadovljica,[11] where it discharges into the Sava Dolinka. Downstream from the confluence, the river is referred to as the Sava.[14]
The Sava spans Central-Southeast Europe, flowing through Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia and along the Bosnia-Herzegovina border. Its total length is 990 kilometres (615 miles), including the 45-kilometre (28 mi) Sava Dolinka and the 945-kilometre (587 mi) Sava proper. As a right tributary of theDanube, the river belongs to theBlack Sea drainage basin.[21][22] The Sava River is thethird longest tributary of the Danube,[23] slightly shorter than the 966-kilometre (600 mi)Tisza and the 950-kilometre (590 mi)Prut—the Danube's two longest tributaries—when the Sava Dolinka headwater is excluded from its course.[24][25] It is also the largest tributary of the Danube bydischarge.[23] The river's course is sometimes used to describe the northern boundary of theBalkans,[26] and the southern border of theCentral Europe.[27] Before thebreakup of Yugoslavia in 1991 the Sava was the longest river lying completely within the country.[28]
The Sava Dolinka rises in the Zelenci Pools, west ofPodkoren in theUpper Carniola region of Slovenia at 833 metres (2,733 feet) above sea level (a.s.l.),[11][13] and flows east, past Kranjska Gora toJesenice, where it turns southeast. AtŽirovnica, the river enters theLjubljana Basin and encounters the firsthydroelectric dam—Moste plant—before proceeding to the east of the glacialLake Bled towards Radovljica and confluence of the Sava Bohinjka,[29] at 411 metres (1,348 feet) a.s.l.[11] Downstream of Radovljica, the Sava proceeds southeast towardsKranj. Between Kranj and Medvode, its course comprises theLake Trboje and theLake Zbiljereservoirs,[30] built for theMavčiče and the Medvode power plants.[31][32]
The Sava then flows through the capital of Slovenia,Ljubljana,[33] where another reservoir is on the river, adjacent to theTacen Whitewater Course.[34] There the river's course turns east and leaves the Ljubljana Basin viaDolsko,[35] at 261 metres (856 feet) a.s.l. (at confluence of theLjubljanica and theKamnik Bistrica).[11] The course continues through theSava Hills, where it passes theLitija Basin with the mining and industrial town ofLitija, theCentral Sava Valley with the mining towns ofZagorje ob Savi,Trbovlje, andHrastnik, turns to the southeast and runs through theLower Sava Valley with the towns ofRadeče,Sevnica, andKrško. The course through the Sava Hills forms the boundary of traditional regions of Lower Carniola andStyria,[36] At Radeče, theVrhovo hydroelectric dam reservoir stands.[37] The latter is site of theKrško Nuclear Power Plant, which uses the Sava River water to dissipate excess heat.[38] The easternmost stretch of the Sava's course in Slovenia runs to the south ofBrežice, where it is joined by the Krka, and the river ultimately becomes a border river between Slovenia andCroatia, marking 4 kilometres (2.5 miles) of their border near confluence of theSutla (Slovene:Sotla).[39] At that point, the Sava reaches 132 metres (433 feet) a.s.l. after flowing 221 kilometres (137 miles) through Slovenia and along its border.[11]
The Sava in Zagreb at theYouth Bridge [hr] on 13 February 2014 after record rainfall, which, combined with melting snow, expanded the river to three times its normal size, rising to a height of 347 cm and reaching the levees. At the time the picture was taken, the water level started subsiding and was at 287 cm.[40] The trees in the water indicate the usual width of the river, around 100 m.[41]
The westernmost part of the 562-kilometre (349 mi) Sava River's course in Croatia,[42] takes the river east, through the western part of theZagreb County, betweenSamobor andZaprešić. The area encompasses forests interspersed bymarshes and lakes formed ingravel pits.[43] As the Sava approaches the capital of Croatia,Zagreb, the marshes give way to urban landscape, but there are surviving examples of the gravel pit lakes, such as theJarun,[44] and theBundek within the city.[45] At the western outskirts of Zagreb, there is the western terminus of the 32-kilometre (20 mi)Sava–Odra flood-relief canal connecting the Sava to theOdra River plain which is intended to act asflood controlretention basin.[46] The canal has been built in response to the most destructiveflooding of the river that occurred in Zagreb in 1964, when one third of the city was flooded and 17 people were killed.[47] The city itself marks the western extent of the Sava River basin area especially prone to flooding, spanning from Zagreb to confluence of the river inBelgrade,Serbia.[48]
Downstream of confluence of the Una River, the Sava is once again tracing an international border—between Croatia andBosnia-Herzegovina. Its meandering course runs generally eastwards alongBosanska Gradiška, andSlavonski Brod toŽupanja, where it turns south toBrčko. There, the river resumes its predominantly eastward course towardsSremska Rača and confluence of theDrina River. The right bank of the Sava, in this segment of its course, belongs to Bosnia-Herzegovina (with Bosnia's all three administrative entities,Republika Srpska,Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and theBrčko District, having gateway to the river), while the opposite bank belongs to Croatia and its Sisak-Moslavina,Brod-Posavina andVukovar-Srijem counties, except in the area ofJamena and further downstream—which belongs to Serbia and the province ofVojvodina. No cities in this segment of the course span the river. It is an international frontier, three times seeing adjacent key settlements facing one another: Bosanska Gradiška, Bosanski Brod, and Brčko in Bosnia and Herzegovina, oppositeStara Gradiška, Slavonski Brod, andGunja in Croatia.
The 337.2-kilometre (209.5 mi) segment between the Una and the Drina confluences, corresponding to the Sava flowing along the border of Bosnia-Herzegovina, exhibits small change of elevation, such as from 86.8 metres (285 feet) ASL at Jasenovac to 76.6 metres (251 feet) ASL at Brčkogauges: over 287.5 kilometres (178.6 miles) of the river between them.[57] The river below Zagreb has a 0.4‰ slope (gradient) on average, much less steep than the course in Slovenia, where the average slope exceeds 0.7‰. This results in the Sava's meandering course running through a wide plain bordered bywetlands.[13]
The confluence of the Sava (river on right side) into theDanube (river on left) near the right bank of theGreat War Island andKalemegdanThe Sava and the historical center ofBelgrade
Downstream from the confluence of the Drina, the Sava River changes its eastward course to northeast, until it reachesSremska Mitrovica, whence it flows southeast and then south toŠabac, before finally turning east towards Belgrade. Most of the river's course in Serbia represents a border between province of Vojvodina, on the left bank, andCentral Serbia, on the right bank. Exceptions to that are in area around Sremska Mitrovica, where both banks are in Vojvodina, and downstream ofProgar suburb of Belgrade where both banks are in Central Serbia. The river meanders and forms wetlands there as well—the most significant centering onObedska baraoxbow lake.[15] The Sava River forms several largeislands in this segment of the course, with the largest among them—800-hectare (2,000-acre)Ada Ciganlija in Belgrade—connected to the right bank by a pair of artificialembankment dams formingLake Sava since 1967.[58][59]
The Sava discharges into the Danube, after reaching 68.3 metres (224 feet) a.s.l. as its right tributary at theGreat War Island off the easternmost tip ofSyrmia in Belgrade, 1,169.9 kilometres (726.9 miles) away from the Danube's confluence and the Black Sea.[60]
Population in the Sava River basin is estimated at 8,176,000, and includes four capitals: Belgrade, Ljubljana,Sarajevo and Zagreb. All except Sarajevo, are on the river banks and represent the three largest settlements found along the river.[61] Belgrade, at the lowest end of the river, is the largest city in the basin with urban population of 1,135,502. Ten municipalities of its outer conurbation have combined population of 1,283,783, taking in many mutual suburbs. The Belgrademetropolitan area has a population of 1,639,121.[62] Zagreb is the second largest city on the river, comprising population of 688,163 living in the city itself, and 802,588 in the city-administered area.[63] Together with the Zagreb County, largely corresponding to various definitions of the city's metropolitan area,[64] it has a combined population of 1,110,517.[63] Ljubljana is the third-largest city on the banks of the Sava, encompassing a population of 258,873 living in the city itself and 265,881 in the city-governed area.[65][66]
The largest city of Bosnia-Herzegovina on the river is Brčko, whose urban population is estimated at 40,000.[67] Other cities along the river, with populations of 20,000 and larger, are Slavonski Brod (53,473), Šabac (52,822), Sremska Mitrovica (37,586), Kranj (35,587),[68] Sisak (33,049),[63]Obrenovac (24,568),[69] and Bosanska Gradiška (est. 20,000).[70]
The most populous urban areas along the Sava River[71][63][72][67]
The Sava River basin covers a total area of97713.2km² making it the second largest Danube tributary catchment by area size, surpassed only by the Tisza basin,[13] and it encompasses 12% of the Danube basin, draining into the Black Sea. The Sava represents the third longest tributary of the Danube and its largest tributary by discharge.[23] The catchment area borders the remainder of the Danube basin to the north and east, and the Adriatic Sea basin to the west and south. The river basin generally consists of parts of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia,Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia, with a very small part of the catchment area belonging toAlbania. Topography of the basin varies significantly. Upstream portion of the basin is more rugged than downstream one, but asymmetry of the basin topography is particularly apparent when comparing right and left bank areas—the former dominated by theAlps and theDinarides reaching elevations in excess of2000m a.s.l, while the latter is dominated by thePannonian Plain. The mean elevation of the basin is545m a.s.l.[75]
The most important tributaries of the Sava River found in its upper basin are characterized by relatively steep grades of flow, high flow velocities andrapids. Those are left tributaries: theKokra, the Kamnik Bistrica and theSavinja; and right tributaries: the Sora, the Ljubljanica and theKrka (Sava). Further downstream larger rivers empty into the Sava, as the right bank of the basin grows steadily. Right tributaries in this lower segment of the basin start as fast flowing courses, only to slow down as they enter thePannonian Basin. They include theKupa, the Una, theVrbas, theUkrina, theBosna, theBrka, the Tinja, the Drina and theKolubara. Left tributaries in the lower segment drain plains consequently exhibiting less steep course grades, lower flow rates and meandering. They include the Sutla, theKrapina, theLonja, theIlova, theOrljava and theBosut.[77]
The346km Drina is the largest tributary of the Sava, flowing in Bosnia-Herzegovina and along border of the country and Serbia. It is formed by the headwaters of theTara and thePiva at the border of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro, nearŠćepan Polje. Its20319.9km² catchment extends across parts of four countries—reaching as far south as Albania. The Bosna and the Kupa river basins are the second and third largest catchments of the Sava tributaries, each surpassing10000km² in size.[77]
Notes: Country/region/county of location of confluence with Sava corresponding to tributary bank side; The list includes rivers with catchment areas greater than 900 square kilometres (350 square miles), with addition of Sutla. Source:International Sava River Basin Commission;[78]
The average annualflow rate of the Sava River at Radovljica, immediately downstream of the Sava Dolinka and the Sava Bohinjka confluence, stands at 44.9 cubic metres (1,590 cubic feet) per second.[79] Downstream of the Krka confluence the average flow rate reaches 317 cubic metres (11,200 cubic feet) per second,[80] gradually increasing as tributaries discharge along the course—340 cubic metres (12,000 cubic feet) per second downstream of the Sutla, 880 cubic metres (31,000 cubic feet) per second following discharge of the Kupa and the Una, 990 cubic metres (35,000 cubic feet) per second downstream of the Vrbas confluence, 1,180 cubic metres (42,000 cubic feet) per second after the Bosna river empties into the Sava,[81] and finally of 1,564 cubic metres (55,200 cubic feet) per second at confluence of the Sava in Belgrade.[23] The highest flow rate of 6,007 cubic metres (212,100 cubic feet) per second was recorded by Slavonski Šamacgauging station in May 2014.[82]
Seven out of eight largest reservoirs in the Sava River basin are in the Drina catchment, the largest among them being the 0.88-cubic-kilometre (0.21 cu mi)Lake Piva on the eponymous river in Montenegro, created after construction ofMratinje Dam. Overall, there are 22 reservoirs holding more than 5,000,000 cubic metres (180,000,000 cubic feet) of water in the basin, with four of themon the Sava, including one on the Sava Dolinka. Most of the reservoirs are used primarily, or even exclusively, forelectricity generation, but they are also used as supply ofdrinking water,industrial water source, forirrigation andfood production.[30]
Groundwater is a very important resource in the Sava River basin, generally used for public water supply of potable water, as a source of water for industrial use, but also as the mainstay ofaquatic ecosystems. There are 41 identified significant groundwater bodies in the Sava River basin of basin-wide importance,[83] ranging in area size from 97 to 5,186 square kilometres (37 to 2,002 square miles), as well as numerous minor ground water bodies. Even though most of them aretransboundary waters, eleven are considered to be largely in Slovenia, fourteen in Croatia, seven in Bosnia-Herzegovina, five in Serbia and four in Montenegro.[84]
The course of the Sava River runs through several diversegeological units andorographic regions. The uppermost course of the river and its headwaters in the Karawanks area, is in theSouthern Alps, tracing the SavaFault—itself running parallel to thePeriadriatic Seam.Mesozoic andUpper Triassic rocks are exposed in the region.[90] The Ljubljana Basin represents the boundary of the Southern Alps and the Dinarides.[91] Valleys of the Sava Dolinka and the Sava Bohinjka areglacial valleys, carved out by the Sava Dolinka and Bohinjglaciers advancing down Karawanks range to vicinity of present-day Radovljica. In thelate Pleistocene,Bohinj Glacier was the largest glacier in the territory of present-day Slovenia, up to 900 metres (3,000 feet) thick.[92][93] Sava Folds, southeast and east of the Ljubljana Basin are thought of as a part of the Dinarides,[94] separating the Ljubljana andKrško Basins,[90] and forming the Sava Hills.[95] The east–west oriented folds are younger than theMiocene and the folding is considered to had taken place in thePliocene and theQuaternary, but it is possible that the tectonic activity continues in the present day.[96] The Sava Folds largely exhibitPaleozoic andTriassic rocks,[97] andclastic sediments.[98]
The lower course of the Sava in the Pannonian Basin—first reached by the Sava River in the Krško Basin on the western rim of the Pannonian Basin.[99] The Pannonian Basin took shape through Miocenian thinning andsubsidence of crust structures formed during Late PaleozoicVariscan orogeny. The Paleozoic and Mesozoic structures are visible inPapuk and other Slavonian mountains. The processes also led to the formation of astratovolcanic chain in the basin 17–12 Mya (million years ago) and intensified subsidence observed until 5 Mya as well asflood basalts about 7.5 Mya. Contemporary uplift of theCarpathian Mountains prevented water flowing to the Black Sea, and thePannonian Sea formed in the basin. Sediments were transported to the basin from uplifting Carpathian and Dinaric mountains, with particularly deep fluvial sediments being deposited in thePleistocene during the uplift of theTransdanubian Mountains.[100] Ultimately, up to 3,000 metres (9,800 feet) of the sediment was deposited in the basin, and the Pannonian sea eventually drained through theIron Gate gorge.[101] In the southern Pannonian Basin, theNeogene to Quaternary sediment depth is normally lower, averaging 500 to 1,500 metres (1,600 to 4,900 feet), except in central parts of depressions formed bysubduction. A subduction zone formed in the present-day Sava River valley, and approximately 4,000 metres (13,000 feet) deep sediments were deposited in the Slavonia-Syrmia depression and 5,500 metres (18,000 feet) in the Sava depression.[102] The results of those processes are largeplains in the Sava River valley and the Kupa River valley. The plains are interspersed by thehorst andgraben structures, believed to have broken the Pannonian Sea surface asislands,[103] which became watershed betweenDrava and Sava River basins extending alongIvanščica–Kalnik–Bilogora–Papuk mountain chain.[104] The Papuk Mountain is flanked by theKrndija and theDilj Hills on the eastern rim of thePožega Valley. The Bilogora, Papuk and Krndija Mountains consist mostly of Paleozoic rocks which are 300–350 million years old, while the Dilj consists of much more recent Neogene rocks, 2–18 million years old.[105] Further east of the chain, the watershed runs through theĐakovo–Vinkovci andVukovar Plateau.[106] Theloess plateau, extending eastward from Dilj and representing the watershed between theVuka and Bosut rivers, gradually rises to theFruška Gora south of Ilok.[107]
There are 18 hydroelectric power plants with power generation capacity exceeding 10 Megawatts in the Sava River basin. In Slovenia, most of them harness the Sava itself. In other countries, the hydroelectric power plants are on its tributaries. Total power generation capacity of the 18 power plants, and additional smaller plants largely found in Slovenia, amounts to 41542 megawatts, and their annual production capacity stands at 2,497 gigawatt-hours. Approximately 3.3 cubic kilometres (0.79 cubic miles) of water per year in the river's basin is used to cool thermoelectric and nuclear power plants. Power plant cooling represents the main type of use of the Sava River waters.[108]
As of October 2012[update], there are six existing hydroelectric power plants built along the Sava River. Upstream of Ljubljana there are Moste, Mavčiče and Medvode power plants, while Vrhovo,Boštanj andBlanca are downstream of the capital. There is one additional plant under construction near Krško. The Krško hydroelectric power plant, as well as two additional plants planned on the Sava River course downstream of Ljubljana—Brežice and Mokrice—should be completed by 2018. The power plants downstream of Ljubljana, except Vrhovo, are developed as a chain of five Slovenia's Lower Sava Valley plants since 2002.[109][110] They will have production capacity of 2,000 gigawatt-hours per year and 570 megawatts ofinstalled capacity. Completion of the five power plants is expected to cost 700 millioneuros. There are also plans for construction of ten new powerplants in the middle Sava valley HE Suhadol, HE Trbovlje, HE Renke, HE Ponovice, HE Kresnice, HE Jevnica, HE Zalog, HE Šentjakob, HE Ježica and HE Tacen. Croatia is planning the construction of four hydroelectric power plants on the Sava River in the Zagreb area. The four plants—Podsused, Prečko, Zagreb andDrenje—are scheduled to be completed by 2021 at a cost of 800 million euros. The four power plants will have an installed capacity of 122 megawatts and an annual production capacity of 610 gigawatt-hours.[111]
Use of water for publicwater supply in the Sava River basin is estimated at 783,000,000 cubic metres (2.77×1010 cubic feet) per year, and another 289,000,000 cubic metres (1.02×1010 cubic feet) of water per year is used for industrial production purposes. Use of water foragriculture in the Sava River basin is relatively high, but most of it is applied in non-consumptive uses, such asfish farming. Use of water for irrigation is relatively low, estimated at 30,000,000 cubic metres (1.1×109 cubic feet) per year.[108]Commercial fishing on the Sava River is in decline since the middle of the 20th century. In 1978, there were only 97 commercial fishermen there, whilerecreational fishing became dominant.[114] The decline became more rapid during the wars in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina, reducing the quantity of fish caught in the river to approximately one-third of the pre-war catches which ranged from 719 to 988 tonnes (708 to 972 long tons; 793 to 1,089 short tons) between 1979 and 1990.[115] TheInternational Sava River Basin Commission (ISRBC), a cooperative body established by Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia andSerbia and Montenegro in 2005,[116] is tasked with the establishment of sustainable management of surface water and groundwater resources in the Sava River basin.[117]
The Sava is navigable to larger vessels for 593.8 kilometres (369.0 miles) between its confluence with the Danube in Belgrade, Serbia and Galdovo Bridge inSisak, Croatia, 2.8 kilometres (1.7 miles) upstream from confluence of Sava and Kupa rivers.[118] The confluence marks the westernmost point of the river course designated as a Class IV internationalwaterway in compliance with theUnited Nations Economic Commission for Europe's European Agreement on Main Inland Waterways of International Importance (AGN).[119] The classification means that the river course between Sisak and Belgrade is navigable to ships of the maximum length of 80 to 85 metres (262 to 279 feet), the maximum beam of 9.5 metres (31 feet), the maximum draught of 2.5 metres (8 feet 2 inches) and tonnage up to 1,500 tonnes (1,500 long tons; 1,700 short tons).[120] The Sava River downstream of Sisak, is designated as European waterway E 80-12, branching off from the E 80 waterway spanning the Danube andLe Havre via theRhine.[121] The largest ports on the Sava River are Brčko and Šamac in Bosnia-Herzegovina,[122] Sisak and Slavonski Brod in Croatia,[123] and Šabac and Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia.[124]
As of 2008[update], 24.5 kilometres (15.2 miles) of the river course betweenSlavonski Šamac andOprisavci, as well as additional 219.8 kilometres (136.6 miles) between Slavonski Brod and Sisak, are considered byCroatia's Ministry of Maritime Affairs, Transport and Infrastructure to fail the Class IV criteria, permitting navigation of vessels up to 1,000 tonnes (980 long tons; 1,100 short tons) only, complying with the AGN's Category III.[119] The Slavonski Šamac–Oprisavci section is especially troublesome for navigation as it offers 250 centimetres (98 inches) draught in less than 50% of an average hydrological year, causing navigation to cease each summer. Similar interruptions are less frequent elsewhere on the river, occurring 30 days a year on average upstream from Oprisavci, and even more rarely downstream from Slavonski Šamac.[125]
The restricted draft and fairway is compounded with a meandering of the river's course—limiting the length of vessels—and low bridge clearance. Further problems are incurred through poor transport infrastructure along the route, including poor navigation markings, and presence of sunken vessels and unexplodedmunitions.[49] Navigation along further 68 kilometres (42 miles) of the river upstream toRugvica near Zagreb is possible for vessels withtonnage below 1,000 tonnes (980 long tons; 1,100 short tons), and the section of the river belongs to the AGN's Category II. There are plans for the restoration of the Category IV compliant waterway downstream of Sisak and betterment of navigation infrastructure between Sisak and Rugvica,[126] as well as upgrading of the waterway between Brčko and Belgrade to Category Va, matching that of the Danube, with uninterrupted navigation through the year. The plan is planned to be supported by theEuropean Union and as of October 2012[update], an agreement to implement the plan was signed by Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia, while Serbia is invited to join the project. The plan aims to increase the safety and volume of river transport, which declined by about 70% since the breakup of Yugoslavia, largely because of poor maintenance of the route.[127] The ISRBC is tasked with the establishment of an international regime of navigation on the river since 2005.[117]
The main pressure on the Sava River basin environment is generated by the activities of the urban population in the basin.[136] Even though nearly all population centres generating pollution above 10,000 population equivalent (PE) have some sort ofsewage treatment in place, less than a quarter of them are adequate.[137] Wastewater from 86% of Sava River basin settlements, generating more than 2,000 PE, goes untreated. Pollution levels vary along the river. The best conditions in terms of wastewater treatment are found in Slovenia, although the existing facilities are inadequate.[138]
In Serbia, on the other hand, 68% of population centres have no wastewater treatment facilities at all.[137] Population centres exceeding 2,000 PE directly discharge into the Sava River basin's surface waters 11112 tonnes ofnitrogen and 2,642 tonnes ofphosphorus.[139]
Agriculture is another significant source of the Sava River basin surface water pollution, specifically throughlivestockmanure production. It is estimated that the nutrient pollution levels generated by manure production equal 32,394 tonnes of nitrogen and 3,784 tonnes of phosphorus per year.[140] As a consequence, the Sava River is microbiologically polluted in areas affected by the nutrient pollution. One such part of the river is the lowermost part of its course between Šabac and Belgrade, where acceptable freshwater bacterial counts are exceeded.[141]
Levels of industrial pollution vary significantly throughout the basin. In 2007, significant sources of industrial pollution were identified in Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia.[142] Levels of lead, cadmium and arsenic measured in the Sava River at Zagreb in 2003 did not exceed permitted concentrations, but measured levels ofmercury exceeded permitted levels in four out of 216 samples.[143] Levels ofheavy metals, specifically zinc, copper, lead and cadmium, measured in sediments in the Sava River near Belgrade were assessed as representing little to no risk,[dubious –discuss] and the conclusion drawn was that in order to "reduce the existing bacterial contamination of the Sava River it is necessary to control faecal discharge near cities like Belgrade."[144] The two countries (Croatia and Montenegro) with the greatest direct access to the Adriatic showed by far the least polluted basin surface waters, although other factors, such as demography, agricultural/environmental development and, especially, investment (internal and external), play a role.
Hazardous substances load from significant industrial pollution of the Sava River basin surface waters in 2007
There are several sports and recreational grounds on the river banks and gravel pits and artificial lakes adjacent. Tacen Whitewater Course, on the right bank of the Sava inTacen, a suburb of Ljubljana, was built as a permanentkayaking course in 1948.[146] It hosts a major international competition almost every year, examples being theICF Canoe Slalom World Championships in1955,1991[147] and2010.[148] In Zagreb, Jarun complex of lakes along the river course offers a range of facilities for swimming, water sports and cycling.[149] The island of Ada Ciganlija in Belgrade is the major recreational zone of the city, gathering as many as 100,000 visitors daily in the summer months.[150][151]
The Sava River is the site of severalregattas. Those include the International Sava Tourrowing regatta taking place between Zagreb and Brčko,[152] and the Belgrade Regatta (sailing regatta).[153]
The river is also the site of theŠabac Swimming Marathon—anopen water swimming competition, running on an 18.8-kilometre (11.7 mi) course between the village ofJarak and the city of Šabac in Serbia. The competition is held annually since 1970, and was included inFINA international calendar from 1984 to 2012.[154]
Recreational andsport fishing is a popular activity along the Sava River course.[114] There is a 700 metres (2,300 feet) long sport fishing competition ground nearHotemež, Slovenia.[155]
Worship of various river gods in the area dates to theLate Bronze Age,[156] when the first settlements were founded along the Sava River.[157]Taurisci associated their river goddessAdsullata with theSavus.[158][156] Altars or inscriptions dedicated to the river-god Savus have been found at a number of locations along the river course, including at the Zelenci Pools where the Sava Dolinka rises, and a number ofRoman settlements andcastra built along the Via Pannonia, theRoman road running fromAquileia to the Danube.[159] The settlements includeEmona,Andautonia andSiscia (near modern-day Ljubljana,Velika Gorica and Sisak respectively) upstream of the Kupa River confluence, andMarsonia, itself built atop aprehistoric settlement,[160]Cibalae,Sirmium andSingidunum (in modern-day Slavonski Brod, Vinkovci, Sremska Mitrovica and Belgrade) downstream of the Kupa.[161] Besides the altar found at the Zelenci Pools, inscriptions and sites dedicated to Savus have been found in remains of Emona,[162] Andautonia and Siscia.[163] Several years after 1751 completion of theRobba Fountain in Ljubljana, the three male figures sculpted as parts of the fountain became identified with the river gods of Sava, Krka and Ljubljanica. In the early 20th century, the fountain was named the Fountain of ThreeCarniolan Rivers.[164]
However, the two wavy lines at the base of theblazon officially represent rivers of Slovenia and the Adriatic Sea rather than the Savica or the Sava specifically.[165]
The Sava River also appears symbolically in the coat of arms of the formerKingdom of Slavonia:
^Strabo (1917–1932)."Book IV Chapter 6". In Jones, H. L.; Thayer, Bill (eds.).Geographica. Loeb Classical Library. Harvard University Press. Retrieved21 August 2016.After the Iapodes comes Segestica [Sisak], a city in the plain, past which flows the River Saüs, which empties into the Ister [Danube].
Bavec, Miloš; Verbič, Tomaž (2001)."Glacial History of Slovenia". In Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L.; Hughes, P.D. (eds.).Quaternary Glaciations – Extent and Chronology: A Closer Look, Volume 4. Amsterdam, the Netherlands:Elsevier.ISBN978-0-444-53447-7.
Ostroški, Ljiljana, ed. (December 2015). "Geographical and Meteorological Data".Statistički ljetopis Republike Hrvatske 2015 [Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Croatia 2015](PDF). Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Croatia (in Croatian and English). Vol. 47. Zagreb:Croatian Bureau of Statistics.ISSN1333-3305. Retrieved27 December 2015.
"Luke i pristaništa" [Ports and harbours] (in Serbo-Croatian). Danube Strategy in Serbia. Archived fromthe original on 23 June 2012. Retrieved21 October 2012.
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