Fermented foods have a long history in many cultures. TheRoman writersCato (in hisDe agri cultura) andColumella (in hisDe re Rustica) mentioned preserving cabbages andturnips with salt. According to Wilhelm Holzapfel et al., Plinius the Elder, writing in the first century AD, is reputed to have been the first writer to describe the making of sauerkraut by preserving what the Romans calledsalt cabbage in earthen vessels.[5] Popular folklore has imagined that sauerkraut was introduced to Europe by thetrade networks formed across Eurasia by theGolden Horde. However, according to Mack and Surina (2005), there is no evidence to support this theory, nor any evidence that fermented cabbage arrived from an East Asian source, and there is evidence of sauerkraut production in Europe dating back to the early period of theWestern Roman Empire.[6]
Althoughsauerkraut is from a German word (Sauerkraut), the dish did not originate in Germany. Some claim cabbage fermentation «Suan cai» was already practiced in the days of the building of theGreat Wall of China.[7] However, the Romans, as previously noted, pickled forms of cabbage, and were the more likely source of modern-day European sauerkraut.[8] It then took root inCentral andEastern European cuisines, but also in other countries including the Netherlands, where it is known aszuurkool, and France, where the name becamechoucroute.[9] According to Mack and Surina (2005), the Slavic peoples of Europe likely discovered fermented cabbage on their own.[10] The English name is borrowed from German where it means "sour cabbage".[1]
Beforefrozen foods, refrigeration, and cheap transport from warmer areas became readily available inNorthern,Central, andEastern Europe, sauerkraut – like other preserved foods – provided a source of certain nutrients (eg,vitamin C) during the winter. CaptainJames Cook always took a store of sauerkraut on his sea voyages, since experience had taught him it preventedscurvy.[13][14]
The word "Kraut", derived from this food, is a derogatory term for the German people.[15] DuringWorld War I, due to concerns the American public would reject a product with a German name, American sauerkraut makersrelabeled their product as "liberty cabbage" for the duration of the war.[16]
Sauerkraut is made by a process ofpickling calledlactic acid fermentation, analogous to how traditional (not heat-treated)pickled cucumbers andkimchi are made. The cabbage is finely shredded, layered with salt, and left to ferment. Fully cured sauerkraut keeps for several months in an airtight container stored at 15 °C (60 °F) or below. In temperate climates, this allows storage over the full winter and early-spring. Neither refrigeration norpasteurization is required, although these treatments prolong storage life.[citation needed]
Fermentation bylactobacilli is introduced naturally, as these air-borne bacteria culture on raw cabbage leaves where they grow. Yeasts also are present, and may yield soft sauerkraut of poor flavor when the fermentation temperature is too high. The fermentation process has three phases, collectively sometimes referred to as population dynamics. In the first phase,anaerobic bacteria such asKlebsiella andEnterobacter lead the fermentation, and begin producing an acidic environment that favors later bacteria. The second phase starts as the acid levels become too high for many bacteria, andLeuconostoc mesenteroides and otherLeuconostoc species take dominance. In the third phase, variousLactobacillus species, includingL. brevis andL. plantarum, ferment any remaining sugars, further lowering thepH.[17] Properly cured sauerkraut is sufficientlyacidic to prevent a favorable environment for the growth ofClostridium botulinum, the toxins of which causebotulism.[2][3]
A 2004genomic study found an unexpectedly large diversity of lactic acid bacteria in sauerkraut, and that previous studies had oversimplified this diversity.Weissella was found to be a major organism in the initial, heterofermentative stage, up to day 7. It was also found thatLactobacillus brevis andPediococcus pentosaceus had smaller population numbers in the first 14 days than previous studies had reported.[18]
The Dutch sauerkraut industry found that combining a new batch of sauerkraut with an old batch resulted in an exceedingly sour product. Thissourdough process is known as "backslopping" or "inoculum enrichment"; when used in making sauerkraut, first- and second-stage population dynamics, important to developing flavor, are bypassed. This is due primarily to the greater initial activity of speciesL. plantarum.[19]
A homemade type of very mild sauerkraut is available, where white cabbage is pickled with salt in a refrigerator for only three to seven days. This process results in very little lactic acid production. Sometimes in Russia double fermentation is used, with the initial step producing an exceptionally sour product, which is then "corrected" by adding 30–50% more fresh cabbage and fermenting the mix again. The flavor additives like apples, beets, cranberries, and sometimes evenwatermelons are usually introduced at this step.[citation needed]
In Bulgaria, Montenegro, Serbia, Bosnia, Croatia, North Macedonia and Slovenia, usually thewhole cabbage heads are pickled. Such produce is used for many dishes, from a simple salad made of chopped cabbage and sprinkled with paprika, to cabbage rolls. In Bulgarian cuisine sauerkraut is known as кисело зеле, and many traditional Bulgarian dishes are made with sauerkraut, like свинско със зеле (pork with sauerkraut), сарми (cabbage rolls), зелник (Bulgarian banitsa with sauerkraut), капама (sausage and meat with cabbage rolls and sauerkraut in clay pot), боб със зеле (beans with sauerkraut) and салата от кисело зеле с червен пипер (sauerkraut salad with paprika). In northern parts of Serbia and Croatia, it is often added to bean soup. In central Serbia, a local specialty called "wedding cabbage" is made by slowly stewing roughly cut cabbage with at least three kinds of meats, lean, fatty, and smoked.
InSzeklerland it is an essential part ofszékelygulyás and theerdélyi rakott káposzta (a type of casserole).
InRomania, the local type of sauerkraut ("varza murata", whole pickled cabbage heads) are used as wrap for the national dish called "sarmale", a Turkish-inspired roll, made of pickled cabbage leaves with minced pork and rice, having its own personality and very distinct in taste from its Ottoman predecessor.[citation needed]
InChile it is calledchucrut and is a common topping for sandwiches and hotdogs, especially forcompletos.[citation needed]
Sauerkraut, along withpork, is eaten traditionally inPennsylvania on New Year's Day. The tradition, started by thePennsylvania Dutch, is thought to bring good luck for the upcoming year.[24] Sauerkraut is also used inAmerican cuisine as acondiment upon various foods, such as sandwiches and hot dogs.[4][25] InMaryland, particularly inBaltimore and on the Eastern Shore, sauerkraut is a traditional accompaniment for the Thanksgiving turkey.[26]
As Europeans, especially Germans, emigrated to other countries, many of them continued making and eating sauerkraut around the world.[27]
Ifunpasteurized and uncooked, sauerkraut also contains livelactobacilli and beneficial microbes and is rich inenzymes. Fiber andprobiotics improve digestion and promote the growth of healthy bowel flora, protecting against many diseases of the digestive tract.[31][32]
During theAmerican Civil War, the physicianJohn Jay Terrell (1829–1922)[33] was able to successfully reduce the death rate from disease among prisoners of war; he attributed this to feeding his patients raw sauerkraut.[34]
Sauerkraut and its juice is a time-honoredfolk remedy forcanker sores. The treatment is to rinse the mouth with sauerkraut juice for about 30 seconds several times a day, or place a wad of sauerkraut against the affected area for a minute or so before chewing and swallowing the sauerkraut.[35]
In 2002, theJournal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry reported that Finnish researchers found theisothiocyanates produced in sauerkraut fermentation inhibit the growth ofcancer cells in test tube and animal studies.[36] A Polish study in 2010 concluded that "induction of the key detoxifying enzymes by cabbage juices, particularly sauerkraut, may be responsible for their chemopreventive activity demonstrated by epidemiological studies and in animal models".[37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44]
Sauerkraut was one of the foods taken by English explorer James Cook on his first and second pacific voyages as a way to prevent scurvy.[45]
Excessive consumption of sauerkraut may lead tobloating andflatulence due to thetrisaccharideraffinose, which the humansmall intestine cannot break down. This does not negatively affect long-term health, although it might be uncomfortable.[47] Additionally, sauerkraut has a very highsodium content.[48]
^Holzapfel, Wilhelm; Schillinger, Ulrich; Buckenhüskes, Herbert (2003)."Sauerkraut". In Farnworth, Edward R. (ed.).Handbook of Fermented Functional Foods. CRC Press. p. 343.ISBN978-0-203-00972-7.
^Oxford English Dictionary. Second edition, 1989. "1. = SAUERKRAUT, SOURCROUT. Also attrib. and Comb.2. (Often with capital initial.) A German, esp. a German soldier. Also attrib. and Comb. Derogatory."
^The pH of completely cured sauerkraut is about 3.6; seeBelitz, H.-D.; Grosch, Werner; Schieberle, Peter (2009).Food Chemistry (4th ed.). Springer. p. 803.ISBN9783540699330.
^Heuzenroeder, Angela May.A food culture transplanted: origins and development of the food of early German immigrants to the Barossa Region, South Australia (1839-1939). PhD dissertation., 2006.
^abLipski, Elizabeth (2013). "6".Digestion Connection: The Simple, Natural Plan to Combat Diabetes, Heart Disease, Osteoporosis, Arthritis, Acid Reflux--And More!. Rodale. p. 63.ISBN978-1609619459.
^Haggard, Robert F (1998). "Samuel Miller and the Founding of the Miller School of Albemarle".The Magazine of Albemarle County History.56 (53–76): 62.
^Ward, Jessica B. 2004.Food to Die for: A Book of Funeral Food, Tips and Tales from the Old City Cemetery, Lynchburg, Virginia. Lynchburg, VA: Southern Memorial Association, pp. 149–150.
^Moret, Sabrina; Smela, Dana; Populin, Tiziana; Conte, Lanfranco S.; et al. (2005). "A survey on free biogenic amine content of fresh and preserved vegetables".Food Chemistry.89 (3):355–361.doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.02.050.
^Pu, C.; Xia, C; Xie, C; Li, K; et al. (November 2001). "Research on the dynamic variation and elimination of nitrite content in sauerkraut during pickling".Wei Sheng Yan Jiu.30 (6):352–4.PMID12561618.
^Wantke, F.; Götz, M; Jarisch, R; et al. (December 1993). "Histamine-free diet: treatment of choice for histamine-induced food intolerance and supporting treatment for chronic headaches".Clinical & Experimental Allergy.23 (12):982–5.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2222.1993.tb00287.x.PMID10779289.S2CID7782951.
^Hung, Hsin-chia; Huang, MC; Lee, JM; Wu, DC; Hsu, HK; Wu, MT; et al. (June 2004). "Association between diet and esophageal cancer in Taiwan".Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology.19 (6):632–7.doi:10.1111/j.1440-1746.2004.03346.x.PMID15151616.S2CID25013053.
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