Motto: لَا إِلهَ إِلَّا اللَّهُ، مُحَمَّدٌ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ Lā ʾilāha ʾillā llāh, Muhammadun rasūlu llāh (Shahada) "There is no god butGod;Muhammad is themessenger of God"[1][a]
Saudi Arabia,[d] officially theKingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA),[e] is a country inWest Asia. Located in the center of theMiddle East, it covers the bulk of theArabian Peninsula and has a land area of about 2,150,000 km2 (830,000 sq mi), making it thefifth-largest country inAsia, the largest in the Middle East, and thetwelfth-largest in the world. It is bordered by theRed Sea to the west;Jordan,Iraq, andKuwait to the north; thePersian Gulf,Bahrain,Qatar and theUnited Arab Emirates to the east;Oman to the southeast; andYemen tothe south. TheGulf of Aqaba in the northwest separates Saudi Arabia fromEgypt andIsrael.[15][16] Saudi Arabia is the only country with a coastline along both the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, and most of its terrain consists of arid desert, lowland, steppe, and mountains. The capital and largest city isRiyadh; other major cities includeJeddah and the two holiest cities inIslam,Mecca andMedina. With a population of almost 32.2 million, Saudi Arabia is the fourth most populous country in theArab world.
Following the amalgamation of theKingdom of Hejaz andNejd,Abdulaziz issued a royal decree on 23 September 1932 naming the new stateal-Mamlaka al-ʿArabiyya as-Suʿūdiyya (Arabicالمملكة العربية السعودية), which is normally translated as "the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" in English,[40] but literally means "theSaudi Arab Kingdom",[41] or "theSaudi Kingdom of Arabia" (comparethe Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan).
The word "Saudi" is derived from the elementas-Suʿūdīyya in the Arabic name of the country, which is a type of adjective known as anisba, formed from the dynastic name of the Saudi royal family, theAl Saud (Arabic:آل سعود). Its inclusion expresses the view that the country is the personal possession of the royal family.[42][43]Al Saud is anArabic name formed by adding the wordAl, meaning "family of" or "House of",[44] to the personal name of an ancestor. In the case of Al Saud, this isSaud ibn Muhammad ibn Muqrin, the father of the dynasty's 18th-century founder,Muhammad bin Saud.[45]
There is evidence that human habitation in theArabian Peninsula dates back to about 125,000 years ago.[46] A 2011 study found that the first modern humans to spread east across Asia leftAfrica about 75,000 years ago across theBab-el-Mandeb connecting theHorn of Africa and Arabia.[47] The Arabian Peninsula is regarded as central to the understanding of evolution and dispersals of humanity. Arabia underwent an extreme environmental fluctuation in theQuaternary that led to profound evolutionary and demographic changes. Arabia has a richLower Paleolithic record, and the quantity ofOldowan-like sites in the region indicate a significant role that Arabia had played in the early hominin colonization of Eurasia.[48]
In theNeolithic period, prominent cultures such asAl-Magar, whose centre lay in modern-day southwestern Najd, flourished. Al-Magar could be considered a "Neolithic Revolution" in human knowledge and handicraft skills.[49] The culture is characterized as being one of the world's first to involve the widespread domestication of animals, particularly the horse.[50][51] Al-Magar statues were made from local stone, and it seems that the statues were fixed in a central building that might have had a significant role in the social and religious life of the inhabitants.[52]
In 2017, hunting scenes showing images of most likely domesticated dogs (resembling theCanaan Dog) were discovered in northwestern Saudi Arabia. These rock engravings date back more than8000 years, making them the earliest depictions of dogs in the world.[53]
At the end of the 4th millennium BC, Arabia entered theBronze Age; metals were widely used, and the period was characterized by its 2 m high burials which were simultaneously followed by the existence of numerous temples that included many free-standing sculptures originally painted with red colours.[54]
In May 2021, archaeologists announced that a 350,000-year-oldAcheulean site named An Nasim in theHail region could be the oldest human habitation site in northern Saudi Arabia.Paleolithic artefacts are similar to material remains uncovered at the Acheulean sites in theNefud Desert.[55][56][57][58]
The "Worshipping Servant" statue (2500 BC), above one metre (3 ft 3 in) in height, is much taller than any possible Mesopotamian or Harappan models. Photo courtesy of theNational Museum of Korea.[59]
The earliest sedentary culture in Saudi Arabia dates back to theUbaid period atDosariyah. Climatic change and the onset of aridity may have brought about the end of this phase of settlement, as little archaeological evidence exists from the succeeding millennium.[60] The settlement of the region picks up again in the period ofDilmun in the early 3rd millennium. Known records fromUruk refer to a place called Dilmun, associated on several occasions with copper, and in later periods it was a source of imported woods in southern Mesopotamia. Scholars have suggested that Dilmun originally designated theEastern Province, notably linked with the major Dilmunite settlements of Umm an-Nussi and Umm ar-Ramadh in the interior and Tarout on the coast. It is likely thatTarout Island was the main port and the capital of Dilmun.[59] Mesopotamian inscribed clay tablets suggest that, in the early period of Dilmun, a hierarchical organized political structure existed. In 1966, an earthwork in Tarout exposed an ancient burial field that yielded a large statue dating to the Dilmunite period (mid 3rd millennium BC). The statue was locally made under the strong Mesopotamian influence on the artistic principle of Dilmun.[59]
By 2200 BC, the centre of Dilmun shifted for unknown reasons from Tarout and the Saudi Arabian mainland to the island of Bahrain, and a highly developed settlement emerged there, where a laborious temple complex and thousands of burial mounds dating to this period were discovered.[59]
Qaṣr Al-Farīd, the largest of the 131rock-cut monumental tombs built from the 1st century BC to the 1st century AD, with their elaborately ornamented façades, at the extensive ancientNabatean archaeological site ofHegra located in the area ofAl-'Ula withinAl Madinah Region in theHejaz. A UNESCOWorld Heritage Site since 2008.
By the lateBronze Age, a historically recorded people and land (Midian and the Midianites) in the north-western portion of Saudi Arabia are well-documented in the Bible. Centred inTabouk, it stretched fromWadi Arabah in the north to the area of al-Wejh in the south.[61] The capital of Midian was Qurayyah,[62] it consists of a large, fortified citadel encompassing 35 hectares and below it lies a walled settlement of 15 hectares. The city hosted as many as 12,000 inhabitants.[63] The Bible recountsIsrael'stwo wars with Midian, in the early 11th century BC. Politically, the Midianites were described as having a decentralized structure headed by five kings (Evi, Rekem, Tsur, Hur, and Reba); the names appear to be toponyms of important Midianite settlements.[64] It is common to view that Midian designated a confederation of tribes, the sedentary element settled in the Hijaz while its nomadic affiliates pastured and sometimes pillaged as far away asPalestine.[65] The nomadicMidianites were one of the earliest exploiters of the domestication of camels that enabled them to navigate through the harsh terrains of the region.[65]
Colossal statue fromAl-'Ula in theHejaz (6th–4th century BC), it followed the standardized artistic sculpting of theLihyanite kingdom. The original statue was painted with white. (Louvre Museum,Paris)[66]
At the end of the 7th century BC, an emerging kingdom appeared in north-western Arabia. It started as a sheikdom of Dedan, which developed into the kingdom ofLihyan.[67][68] During this period, Dedan transformed into a kingdom that encompassed a much wider domain.[67] In the early 3rd century BC, with bustling economic activity between the south and north, Lihyan acquired large influence suitable to its strategic position on the caravan road.[69] The Lihyanites ruled over a large domain fromYathrib in the south and parts of the Levant in the north.[70] In antiquity, Gulf of Aqaba used to be called Gulf of Lihyan, a testimony to the extensive influence that Lihyan acquired.[71]
The Lihyanites fell into the hands of theNabataeans around 65 BC upon their seizure of Hegra then marching toTayma, and to their capital Dedan in 9 BC. The Nabataeans ruled large portions of north Arabia until their domain was annexed by theRoman Empire, which renamed itArabia Petraea, and remained under the rule of the Romans until 630.[72]
At its greatest extent, theUmayyad Caliphate (661–750) covered11100000 km2 (4300000 sq mi)[73] and 62 million people (29 per cent of the world's population),[74] making it one of thelargest empires in history in both area and proportion of the world's population. It was also larger than any previous empire in history.
Shortly before the advent of Islam, apart from urban trading settlements (such as Mecca and Medina), much of what was to become Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic pastoral tribal societies.[75] The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca in about 570CE. In the early 7th century,Muhammad united thevarious tribes of the peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity.[76] Following his death in 632, his followers expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territory in the Iberian Peninsula in the west, to parts of Central and South Asia in the east, in a matter of decades.[18][19][20] Arabia became a more politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to the newly conquered lands.[76]
Arabs originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia, theHejaz in particular, founded theRashidun (632–661),Umayyad (661–750),Abbasid (750–1517), and theFatimid (909–1171) caliphates. From the 10th century to the early 20th century, Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab ruler known as theSharif of Mecca, but at most times the Sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the major Islamic empires based inBaghdad,Cairo orIstanbul. Most of the remainder of what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule.[77][78]
For much of the 10th century, theIsma'ili-Shi'iteQarmatians were the most powerful force in the Persian Gulf. In 930, the Qarmatians pillaged Mecca, outraging the Muslim world, particularly with their theft of theBlack Stone.[79] In 1077–1078, an Arab sheikh namedAbdullah bin Ali Al Uyuni defeated the Qarmatians inBahrain andal-Hasa with the help of theSeljuq Empire and founded theUyunid dynasty.[80][81] TheUyunid Emirate later underwent expansion, with its territory stretching from Najd to theSyrian Desert.[82] They were overthrown by theUsfurids in 1253.[83] Usfurid rule was weakened after Persian rulers ofHormuz captured Bahrain andQatif in 1320.[84] The vassals of Ormuz, the ShiaJarwanid dynasty came to rule eastern Arabia in the 14th century.[85][86] TheJabrids took control of the region after overthrowing the Jarwanids in the 15th century and clashed with Hormuz for more than two decades over the region for its economic revenues, until finally agreeing to paytribute in 1507.[85]Al-Muntafiq tribe later took over the region and came underOttomansuzerainty. TheBani Khalid tribe later revolted against them in the 17th century and took control.[87] Their rule extended from Iraq to Oman at its height, and they too came under Ottoman suzerainty.[88][89]
In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz,Aseer andAl-Ahsa) to the empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. One reason was tothwart Portuguese attempts to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the Indian Ocean.[90] The Ottoman degree of control over these lands varied over the next four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the empire's central authority.[91][92] These changes contributed to later uncertainties, such as the dispute with Transjordan over theinclusion of the sanjak of Ma'an, including the cities ofMa'an andAqaba.
The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began at the town ofDiriyah in central Arabia with the accession asemir ofMuhammad bin Saud on 22 February 1727.[93][94] In 1744 he joined forces with the religious leaderMuhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab,[95] founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam.[96] This alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today.[97]
TheEmirate of Diriyah established in the area around Riyadh rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia,sacking Karbala in 1802, andcapturing Mecca in 1803. In 1818, it was destroyed by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt,Mohammed Ali Pasha.[98] The much smallerEmirate of Nejd was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, theAl Rashid, who ruled theEmirate of Jabal Shammar. By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile in Kuwait.[77]
British Prime MinisterWinston Churchill andIbn Saud, the founding father and first king of Saudi Arabia, inEgypt in 1945
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have a suzerainty over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers,[99][100] with theSharif of Mecca having pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz.[101] In 1902,Abdul Rahman's son, Abdulaziz—later known asIbn Saud—recaptured control of Riyadh bringing the Al Saud back to Nejd, creating thethird "Saudi state".[77] Ibn Saud gained the support of theIkhwan, a tribal army inspired by Wahhabism and led byFaisal Al-Dawish, and which had grown quickly after its foundation in 1912.[102] With the aid of the Ikhwan, Ibn Saud captured Al-Ahsa from the Ottomans in 1913.
In 1916, with the encouragement and support ofBritain (which was fighting the Ottomans inWorld War I), the Sharif of Mecca,Hussein bin Ali, led a pan-Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state.[103] Although the revolt failed in its objective,the Allied victory in World War I resulted in the end of Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia, and Hussein bin Ali becameKing of Hejaz.[104]
Ibn Saud avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt and instead continued his struggle with the Al Rashid. Following the latter's final defeat, he took the titleSultan of Nejd in 1921. With the help of the Ikhwan, the Kingdom of Hejaz was conquered in 1924–25, and on 10 January 1926, Ibn Saud declared himself king of Hejaz.[105] For the next five years, he administered the two parts of his dual kingdom as separate units.[77]
After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leadership's objective switched to expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began raiding those territories. This met with Ibn Saud's opposition, as he recognized the danger of a direct conflict with the British. At the same time, the Ikhwan became disenchanted with Ibn Saud's domestic policies which appeared to favour modernization and the increase in the number of non-Muslim foreigners in the country. As a result, they turned against Ibn Saud and, after a two-year struggle, were defeated in 1929 at theBattle of Sabilla, where their leaders were massacred.[106] On Ibn Saud's behalf,Prince Faisal declared the unification on 23 September 1932, and the two kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[77] That date is now a national holiday calledSaudi National Day.[107]
The oil wellDammam No. 7 on March 4, 1938, the day it struck oil in commercial quantities, becoming the first in Saudi Arabia to do so
The new kingdom was reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage revenues.[108]In 1938, vast reserves of oil were discovered in the Al-Ahsa region along the coast of the Persian Gulf, and full-scale development of the oil fields began in 1941 under the US-controlledAramco (Arabian American Oil Company). Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally.[77] Cultural life rapidly developed, primarily in the Hejaz, which was the centre for newspapers and radio. However, the large influx offoreign workers in Saudi Arabia in the oil industry increased the pre-existing propensity forxenophobia. At the same time, the government became increasingly wasteful and extravagant. By the 1950s this had led to large governmental deficits and excessive foreign borrowing.[77] In 1953,Saud of Saudi Arabia succeeded as the king of Saudi Arabia. In 1964 he was deposed in favour of his half brotherFaisal of Saudi Arabia, after an intense rivalry, fuelled by doubts in the royal family over Saud's competence. In 1972, Saudi Arabia gained a 20% control in Aramco, thereby decreasing US control over Saudi oil.[109] In 1973, Saudi Arabia led anoil boycott against the Western countries that supported Israel in theYom Kippur War against Egypt and Syria, leading to the quadrupling of oil prices.[77] In 1975, Faisal was assassinated by his nephew, PrinceFaisal bin Musaid and was succeeded by his half-brotherKing Khalid.[110]
By 1976, Saudi Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the world.[111] Khalid's reign saw economic and social development progress at an extremely rapid rate, transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country;[77] in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed.[110] In 1979, two events occurred which greatly concerned the government[112] and had a long-term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policy. The first was theIranian Islamic Revolution. It was feared that the country'sShi'ite minority in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oil fields) might rebel under the influence of their Iranian co-religionists. There were several anti-government uprisings in the region such as the1979 Qatif Uprising.[113] The second event was theGrand Mosque Seizure in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi government.[113] The government regained control of the mosque after 10 days, and those captured were executed. Part of the response of the royal family was to enforce the much stricter observance of traditional religious and social norms in the country (for example, the closure of cinemas) and to give theulema a greater role in government.[114] Neither entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in strength.[115]
Map of Saudi Arabian administrative regions and roadways
In 1980, Saudi Arabia bought out the American interests in Aramco.[116] King Khalid died in 1982 and was succeeded by his brother,King Fahd. Fahd continued to develop close relations with the United States and increased the purchase of American and British military equipment.[77] The vast wealth generated by oil revenues was beginning to have an even greater impact on Saudi society. It led to rapid technological (but not cultural) modernization, urbanization, mass public education, and the creation of new media. This and the presence of increasingly large numbers of foreign workers greatly affected traditional Saudi norms and values. Although there was a dramatic change in the social and economic life of the country, political power continued to be monopolized by the royal family[77] leading to discontent among many Saudis who began to look for wider participation in government.[117]
In the 1980s, Saudi Arabia andKuwait spent $25 billion in support ofSaddam Hussein in theIran–Iraq War (1980–1988);[118] however, Saudi Arabia condemned theinvasion of Kuwait in 1990 and asked the United States to intervene.[77] King Fahd allowed American and coalition troops to be stationed in Saudi Arabia. He invited the Kuwaiti government and many of its citizens to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens ofYemen andJordan because of their governments' support ofIraq. In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait, which became known as theGulf War (1990–1991).[109]
Saudi Arabia's relations with the West was one of the issues that led toan increase in Islamist terrorism in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamist terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals.Osama bin Laden was a Saudi citizen (until stripped of his citizenship in 1994) and was responsible for the1998 U.S. embassy bombings in East Africa and the 2000USSCole bombing near the port ofAden, Yemen. 15 ofthe hijackers involved in theSeptember 11 attacks were Saudi nationals.[119] Many Saudis who did not support the Islamist terrorists were nevertheless deeply unhappy with the government's policies.[120]
Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the government. Although extremely wealthy by the 21st century, Saudi Arabia's economy was near stagnant. High taxes and a growth in unemployment have contributed to discontent and have been reflected in a rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a number of limited reforms were initiated by King Fahd. In March 1992, he introduced the "Basic Law", which emphasized the duties and responsibilities of a ruler. In December 1993, the Consultative Council was inaugurated. It is composed of a chairman and 60 members—all chosen by the King. Fahd made it clear that he did not have democracy in mind, saying: "A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic creed, which [approves of] government by consultation [shūrā]."[77]
In 1995, Fahd suffered a stroke, and the Crown Prince,Abdullah, becamede facto regent; however, his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as the "Sudairi Seven").[121]
21st century
Signs of discontent included, in 2003 and 2004, a series of bombings and armed violence in Riyadh, Jeddah, Yanbu and Khobar.[122] In February–April 2005,the first-ever nationwide municipal elections were held in Saudi Arabia. Women were not allowed to take part.[77]
In 2005, King Fahd died and was succeeded by Abdullah, who continued the policy of minimum reform and clamping down on protests. The king introduced economic reforms aimed at reducing the country's reliance on oil revenue: limitedderegulation, encouragement of foreign investment, andprivatization. In February 2009, Abdullah announced a series of governmental changes to the judiciary, armed forces, and various ministries to modernize these institutions including the replacement of senior appointees in the judiciary and theMutaween (religious police) with more moderate individuals and the appointment of the country's first female deputy minister.[77] On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered inJeddah in a rare display of criticism against the city's poor infrastructure after flooding killed 11 people.[123]
Since 2011, Saudi Arabia has been affected by its ownArab Spring protests.[124] In response, King Abdullah announced on 22 February 2011 a series of benefits for citizens amounting to $36 billion, of which $10.7 billion was earmarked for housing.[125][126][127] No political reforms were included, though some prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned.[128] Abdullah also announced a package of $93 billion, which included 500,000 new homes to a cost of $67 billion, in addition to creating60000 new security jobs.[129][130] Although male-onlymunicipal elections were held in 2011,[131][132] Abdullah allowed women to vote and be elected in the2015 municipal elections, and also to be nominated to theShura Council.[133]
Saudi Arabia topographyHarrat Khaybar seen from theInternational Space Station. Saudi Arabia is home to more than 2000 dormant volcanoes.[134] Lava fields in Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of harrat (the singular is harrah), form one of Earth's largestalkali basalt regions, covering some 180,000 square kilometres (69,000 sq mi).[135]
Saudi Arabia occupies about 80% of theArabian Peninsula (the world's largest peninsula),[136] lying between latitudes16° and33° N, and longitudes34° and56° E. Because the country's southeastern and southern borders with theUnited Arab Emirates andOman are not precisely marked, the exact size of the country is undefined.[136] TheUnited Nations Statistics Division estimates2149690 km2 (830000 sq mi) and lists Saudi Arabia as the world's12th largest state. It is geographically the largest country in the Middle East and on theArabian Plate.[137]
Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by theArabian Desert, associated semi-desert, shrubland, steppes, several mountain ranges, volcanic lava fields and highlands. The647500 km2 (250001 sq mi)Rub' al Khali ("Empty Quarter") in the southeastern part of the country is the world's largest contiguous sand desert.[138][139] Though there are lakes in the country, Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the world by area with no permanent rivers.Wadis, non-permanent rivers, however,are very numerous throughout the kingdom. The fertile areas are to be found in the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases.[138] There areapproximately 1,300 islands in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.[140]
The main topographical feature is the central plateau which rises abruptly from the Red Sea and gradually descends into theNejd and toward the Persian Gulf. On the Red Sea coast, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as theTihamah, parallel to which runs along an imposing escarpment. The southwest province ofAseer is mountainous and contains the3002 m (9849 ft)Jabal Ferwa, which is the highest point in the country.[138] Saudi Arabia is home to more than 2,000 dormant volcanoes.[134] Lava fields in Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of harrat (the singular is harrah), form one of Earth's largestalkali basalt regions, covering some 180,000 square kilometres (69,000 sq mi).[135]
Except for the southwestern regions such as Aseer, Saudi Arabia has adesert climate with very high day-time temperatures during the summer and a sharp temperature drop at night. Average summer temperatures are around 45 °C (113 °F) but can be as high as 54 °C (129 °F). In the winter the temperature rarely drops below 0 °C (32 °F) with the exception of mostly the northern regions of the country where annual snowfall, in particular in the mountainous regions ofTabuk Province, is not uncommon.[141] The lowest recorded temperature, −12.0 °C (10.4 °F), was measured inTuraif.[142] Of the Gulf states, Saudi Arabia is likely to experience snowfalls most frequently.[143]
In the spring and autumn the heat is temperate, temperatures average around 29 °C (84 °F). Annual rainfall is very low. The southern regions differ in that they are influenced by the Indian Oceanmonsoons, usually occurring between October and March. An average of 300 mm (12 in) of rainfall occurs during this period, which is about 60% of the annual precipitation.[144]
The Red Sea is a rich and diverseecosystem with more than1,200 species of fish[150] around 10% of which areendemic.[151] This also includes 42 species ofdeep water fish.[150] The rich diversity is partly owed to the2000 km (1240 mi) of coral reef extending along the coastline; thesefringing reefs are largely formed of stonyacropora andporites corals. The reefs form platforms and sometimes lagoons along the coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as theBlue Hole atDahab). These coastal reefs are also visited bypelagic species, including some of the44 species of shark. There are many offshore reefs including severalatolls. Many of the unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes and are generally attributed to the high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area.
Reflecting the country's dominant desert conditions, plant life mostly consists of herbs, plants, and shrubs that require little water. The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is widespread.[138]
Saudi Arabia is anabsolute monarchy;[152] however, according to theBasic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply withSharia (Islamic law) and theQuran, while the Quran and theSunnah (the traditions of Muhammad) are declared to be the country's constitution.[153] No political parties or national elections are permitted.[152] While some critics consider it to be atotalitarian state,[154][155] others regard it as lacking aspects of totalitarianism but nevertheless classify it as an authoritarian regime.[156][157][158]The Economist ranked the Saudi government 150th out of 167 in its 2022Democracy Index,[159] andFreedom House gave it its lowest "Not Free" rating, giving it a score of 8 out of 100 for 2023.[160] According to the 2024V-Dem Democracy Indices, Saudi Arabia is the leastdemocratic country in the Middle East, as well as the most closed autocratic country in Asia.[161] Additionally, according toInternational IDEA’s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Saudi Arabia performs in the low range on overall democratic measures, with particular weaknesses in political representation, including credible elections, inclusive suffrage and effective parliament.[162][163][164]
In the absence of national elections and political parties,[152] politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two distinct arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi society.[165] Outside of the Al Saud, participation in the political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the population and takes the form of the royal family consulting with the ulema, tribal sheikhs, and members of important commercial families on major decisions.[138] This process is not reported by the Saudi media.[166]
By custom, all males of full age have a right to petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as themajlis.[167] In many ways the approach to government differs little from the traditional system of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains strong, and outside of the royal family, political influence is frequently determined by tribal affiliation, with tribal sheikhs maintaining a considerable degree of influence over local and national events.[138] In recent years there have been limited steps to widen political participation such as the establishment of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s and the National Dialogue Forum in 2003.[168] In 2005, the first municipal elections were held. In 2007, theAllegiance Council was created to regulate the succession.[168] In 2009, the king made significant personnel changes to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and the first woman to a ministerial post;[169][170] however, these changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic.[171]
The rule of the Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism; liberal critics; theShi'ite minority—particularly in the Eastern Province; and long-standing tribal andregionalist particularistic opponents (for example in the Hejaz).[172] Of these, the minority activists have been the most prominent threat to the government and have in recent years been involved inviolent incidents in the country.[122] However, open protest against the government, even if peaceful, is not tolerated.[173]
The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions[138] and royal decrees form the basis of the country's legislation.[174] The prime minister presides over theCouncil of Ministers of Saudi Arabia andConsultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia. The king has usually been also the prime minister, with two exceptions: Crown PrinceFaisal, who was prime minister during the reign ofKing Saud,[175] and Crown PrinceMohammed Bin Salman, the current prime minister since 2022.[176] The royal family dominates the political system. The family's vast numbers allows it to control most of the kingdom's important posts and to have an involvement at all levels of government.[177] The number of princes is estimated to be at least7000, with most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so male descendants of Ibn Saud.[178] The key ministries are generally reserved for the royal family,[152] as are the 13 regional governorships.[179]
As many as 500 princes, government ministers, and business people, including PrinceFahd bin Abdullah, were arrested by Saudi Arabian authorities as part of the2017 Saudi Arabian purge.
The Saudi government[180][181][182] and the royal family[183][184][185] have often been accused of corruption over many years,[186] and this continues into the 21st century.[187] In a country that is said to "belong" to the royal family and is named for them,[43] the lines between state assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are blurred.[178] The extent of corruption has been described as systemic[188] and endemic,[189] and its existence was acknowledged[190] and defended[191] byPrince Bandar bin Sultan (a senior member of the royal family)[192] in an interview in 2001.[193]
In itsCorruption Perceptions Index for 2010,Transparency International gave Saudi Arabia a score of 4.7 (on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "highly corrupt" and 10 is "highly clean").[194] Saudi Arabia has undergone a process of political and social reform, such as to increase public transparency and good governance, but nepotism and patronage are widespread when doing business in the country; the enforcement of the anti-corruption laws is selective and public officials engage in corruption with impunity. As many as 500 people, including prominent Saudi Arabian princes, government ministers, and businesspeople, werearrested in an anti-corruption campaign in November 2017.[195]
Saudi Arabia is unique in giving theulema (the body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) a direct role in government.[196] The preferred ulema are of theSalafi movement. The ulema have been a key influence in major government decisions, for example the imposition of theoil embargo in 1973 and theinvitation to foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990.[197] In addition, they have had a major role in the judicial and education systems[198] and a monopoly of authority in religious and social morals.[199]
By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization initiated by King Faisal, important changes to Saudi society were underway, and the power of the ulema was in decline.[200] However, this changed following theseizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979 by Islamist radicals.[201] The government's response to the crisis included strengthening the ulema's powers and increasing their financial support:[114] in particular, they were given greater control over the education system[201] and allowed to enforce the stricter observance of Wahhabi rules of moral and social behaviour.[114] After his accession to the throne in 2005, King Abdullah took steps to reduce the powers of the ulema, for instance transferring control over girls' education to the Ministry of Education.[202]
The ulema have historically been led by theAl ash-Sheikh,[203] the country's leading religious family.[199] The Al ash-Sheikh are the descendants ofMuhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the 18th-century founder of the Wahhabi form of Sunni Islam which is today dominant in Saudi Arabia.[204] The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the royal family)[205] with whom they formed a "mutual support pact"[206] and power-sharing arrangement nearly 300 years ago.[197] The pact, which persists to this day,[206] is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority[207] thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule.[208] Although the Al ash-Sheikh's domination of the ulema has diminished in recent decades,[209] they still hold the most important religious posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage.[199]
Verses from the Quran. The Quran is the official constitution of the country and a primary source of law. Saudi Arabia is unique in enshrining a religious text as a political document.[210]
The primary source of law is the IslamicSharia derived from the teachings of theQur'an and theSunnah (the traditions of the Prophet).[174] Saudi Arabia is unique among modern Muslim states in that Sharia is not codified and there is no system of judicial precedent, allowing judges to use independent legal reasoning to make a decision. Thus, divergent judgments arise even in apparently identical cases,[211] making predictability of legal interpretation difficult.[212] Saudi judges tend to follow the principles of theHanbalischool of jurisprudence (fiqh) found in pre-modern texts and noted for its literalist interpretation of the Qur'an andhadith.[213][214] In 2021, Saudi Arabia announced judicial reforms to entirelycodify its laws and eliminate discrepancies.[215]
Royal decrees are the other main source of law but are referred to asregulations rather thanlaws because they are subordinate to Sharia.[174] Royal decrees supplement Sharia in areas such as labour, commercial and corporate law. Additionally, traditional tribal law and custom remain significant.[216] Extra-Sharia government tribunals usually handle disputes relating to specific royal decrees.[217] Final appeal from both Sharia courts and government tribunals is to the king, and all courts and tribunals follow Sharia rules of evidence and procedure.[218]
Retaliatory punishments, orQisas, are practised: for instance, an eye can be surgically removed at the insistence of a victim who lost his own eye.[219] Families of someone unlawfully killed can choose between demanding the death penalty or granting clemency in return for a payment ofdiyya (blood money), by the perpetrator.[220]
Saudi Arabia is divided into 13regions[221] (Arabic:مناطق إدارية;manatiq idāriyya, sing. منطقة إدارية;mintaqah idariyya). The regions are further divided into 118governorates (Arabic:محافظات;muhafazat, sing. محافظة;muhafazah). This number includes the 13 regional capitals, which have a different status as municipalities (Arabic:أمانة;amanah) headed by mayors (Arabic:أمين;amin). The governorates are further subdivided into sub-governorates (Arabic:مراكز;marakiz, sing. مركز;markaz).
Since co-foundingOPEC in 1960, Saudi Arabia's oil pricing policy has officially aimed to stabilize the world oil market and moderate sharp price movements so as not to jeopardize Western economies.[40][225] In 1973, Saudi Arabia and other Arab nations imposed anoil embargo against the United States, United Kingdom, Japan, and other Western nations that supported Israel in theYom Kippur War.[226] The embargo caused anoil crisis with many short- and long-term effects on global politics and the global economy.[227]
Saudi Arabia and the United States are strategic allies;[228][229][230] the U.S. has been the most influential foreign power in the kingdom since the end of World War II.[231] Saudi Arabia's role in the 1991Gulf War, particularly the stationing of American troops on Saudi soil from 1991, prompted the development of a hostile Islamist response internally.[232] As a result, Saudi Arabia has, to some extent, distanced itself from the U.S.; for example, it refused to support or participate in the U.S.-ledinvasion of Iraq in 2003.[138] Nevertheless, Saudi Arabia remains a key strategic ally of the U.S. and a leading importer of American arms.[233] In 2017, PresidentDonald Trump and King Salman signed a series of letters of intent for Saudi Arabia topurchase arms from the United States totaling $350 billion over 10 years.[234][235]
China and Saudi Arabia's relationship has grown significantly in recent decades. A significant number of Saudi Arabians have also expressed a positive view ofChina.[236][237][238] In February 2019, Crown Prince Mohammad defended China'sXinjiang internment camps forUyghurMuslims.[239][240] According toThe Diplomat, Saudi Arabia's human rights record has "come under frequent attack abroad and so defending China becomes a roundabout way of defending themselves."[241]
Saudi Arabia has traditionally sought to preserve the regional status quo by using its financial, diplomatic, and military resources to limit the effects of revolutionary uprisings in neighboring countries.[242] It has been engaged in aproxy conflict with Iran since the 1979Islamic Revolution, which had called for the overthrow of monarchies and secular governments. The consequences of the 2003 invasion of Iraq and theArab Spring (2010–2012) led to increasing alarm within the Saudi monarchy over the rise ofIran's influence in the region.[243] These fears were reflected in comments of King Abdullah,[202] who privately urged the United States to attack Iran and "cut off the head of the snake".[244]
Saudi Arabia has been seen as a moderating influence in theArab–Israeli conflict, periodically putting forward a peace plan between Israel and thePalestinians and condemningHezbollah.[245]
In 2017, as part ofits nuclear powerprogramme, Saudi Arabia planned to extract uranium domestically, taking a step towards self-sufficiency in producingnuclear fuel.[246] Subsequently, the kingdom has been exploring foreign partnerships for constructing its first civil nuclear reactors, including with the United States, China, Russia, South Korea, and France.[247]
Saudi Arabia has been accused of sponsoring Islamic terrorism.[248][249] According to Iraq Prime MinisterNouri al-Maliki in March 2014, Saudi Arabia along with Qatar provided political, financial, and media support to terrorists against the Iraqi government.[250] Similarly, former President of SyriaBashar al-Assad noted in 2015 that the sources of the extreme ideology of the terrorist organizationISIS and other suchSalafist extremist groups are the Wahabism that has been supported by the royal family of Saudi Arabia.[251]
Relations with the U.S. became strained following9/11 terror attacks.[252] American politicians and media accused the Saudi government of supporting terrorism and tolerating ajihadist culture.[253] According to former U.S. Secretary of StateHillary Clinton in December 2010, "Saudi Arabia remains a critical financial support base for al-Qaida, theTaliban,LeT and other terrorist groups... Donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide."[254] The Saudi government denies these claims or that it exports religious or cultural extremism.[255] In September 2016, the U.S. Congress passed theJustice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act that would allow relatives of victims of the 11 September attacks to sue Saudi Arabia forits government's alleged role in the attacks.[256] In 2014,Sheikh Abdulaziz bin Abdullah Al-Sheikh, theGrand Mufti of Saudi Arabia and Chairman of theCouncil of Senior Scholars, issued afatwa explicitly prohibiting joining or supporting terrorist organizations such asISIS andal-Qaeda.[257] According to theU.S. Department of State, "Saudi Arabia plays an important role in working toward a peaceful and prosperous future for the region and is a strong partner in security and counterterrorism efforts and in military, diplomatic, and financial cooperation."[258] A significant Saudi counterterrorism success was the foiling of a 2010cargo plane bomb plot.[259] In December 2015, Saudi Arabia announced the formation of theIslamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition, an alliance of Muslim-majority countries aimed at combating terrorism and extremism.[260]
However, since 2016 the kingdom began backing away from Islamist ideologies.[261] Several reforms took place including curbing the powers ofreligious police,[262] and stopping funding mosques in foreign countries.[263]
Saudi Arabia has one of theworld's highest military expenditures in both proportional and absolute terms, at approximately US$80.3 billion (roughly 7% of GDP) according to a 2024 estimate by theStockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI); this places the country seventh in the world, behind the United States, China, Russia, Germany, India, and the United Kingdom. Spending on defence and security has increased significantly since the mid-1990s and was about US$78.4 billion as of 2019.[267] A 2023 estimate by SIPRI ranked Saudi Arabia fourth in the world inper capita military spending. The kingdom was the world's second largest arms importer from 2019 to 2023.[268][269] According to theBICC, Saudi Arabia is the 28th most militarized country in the world and possesses the second-best military equipment qualitatively in the region, after Israel.[270] Its modern high-technology arsenal makes Saudi Arabia among the world's most densely armed nations.[271]
Saudi Arabia has security relationships with the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, which provide training and weapons;[272] the kingdom is the largest recipient of U.S. arms in the world, accounting for 12 percent of all U.S. arms exports in 2024.[273] Saudi Arabia has along-standing military relationship with Pakistan and is speculated to have secretly funded the latter'satomic bomb programme with the intention of purchasing its atomic weapons;[274][275] in September 2025, both countries entered into amutual defense pact. Since 2018, Saudi Arabia has repeatedly expressed willingness to acquire or develop nuclear weapons in the event that its chief regional rival, Iran, develops one.[276][277]
In March 2015, Saudi Arabia mobilized 150,000 troops and 100 fighter jets to support itsintervention in the civil war in neighbouringYemen.[278][279] By early 2016, Saudi ground forces and their coalition allies capturedAden and parts of southwest Yemen, though the Houthis continued to control northern Yemen and the capital citySanaa. From there the Houthis launched successful attacks across the border into Saudi Arabia.[280] The Saudi military has also carried out an aerial bombing campaign and a naval blockade aimed at stopping weapons shipments to the Houthis.[281][282] As of 2024, Saudi Arabia had 2,500 troops actively participating in the conflict in Yemen.[283]
The Saudi government, which mandates Muslim and non-Muslim observance of Sharia law under the absolute rule of the House of Saud, has been denounced by international organizations and governments for violating human rights.[284] The authoritarian regime is consistently ranked among the "worst of the worst" inFreedom House'sannual survey of political and civil rights.[285] According toAmnesty International, security forces torture and ill-treat detainees to extract confessions to be used as evidence against them.[286] Saudi Arabia abstained from the UN vote adopting theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights, saying it contradicted Sharia.[287] Mass executions, such as those carried outin 2016,[288]2019,[289] and2022,[290] have been condemned by international rights groups.
Since 2001, Saudi Arabia has engaged ininternet censorship. Most censorship falls into two categories: "immoral" content (mostly pornographic and LGBT-supportive sites along with sites promoting any religion other than Sunni Islam) and blacklisted content dictated bySaudi Arabia's Ministry of Media, which primarily censors sites critical of the regime or associated with parties that are opposed to or opposed by Saudi Arabia.[291][292][293]
Deera Square, central Riyadh. It is a former site of public beheadings.[294]
Saudi Arabian law does not recognizesexual orientations or religious freedom, and the public practice of non-Muslim religions is actively prohibited.[295] The justice system regularly engages incapital punishment, which has included public executions bydecapitation.[296][297] In line with Sharia in theSaudi justice system, the death penalty can theoretically be imposed for a range of offenses,[298] including murder, rape, armed robbery, repeated drug use,apostasy,[299] adultery,[300] and witchcraft and sorcery.[301] It can be carried out by beheading with a sword,[299]stoning or firing squad,[300] followed bycrucifixion (exposure of the body after execution).[301] In 2022, the Saudi Crown Prince stated that capital punishments will be removed "except for one category mentioned in the Quran", namelyhomicide, under which certain conditions must be applied.[290] In April 2020, Saudi Supreme Court issued a directive to eliminate the punishment of flogging from the court system, replaced by imprisonment or fines.[302][303]
Historically, Saudi women have faceddiscrimination in many aspects of their lives and were effectively treated aslegal minors under themale guardianship system.[304] The treatment of women has been referred to as "sex segregation"[305][306] and "genderapartheid".[307][308] As of June 2023, the kingdom has reportedly reversed its ban on women "becoming lawyers, engineers, or geologists" and established "aggressiveaffirmative action programmes", doubling the female labour force participation rate. It has added "its first female newspaper editors, diplomats, TV anchors and public prosecutors", with a female head of the Saudi stock exchange and member on the board ofSaudi Aramco.[309] In June 2018, the Saudi government issued a law allowing women to drive.[310] However, an investigation byThe Guardian newspaper in 2025 found that theDar al-Reaya, officially "care homes", continued to be effectively "jails" for women whose families wished to institutionalize them for disobedience, extramarital sexual relations or being absent from home. Some women are sent to Dar al-Reaya to protect a family's reputation after a woman is sexually abused by a brother or father. Treatment was reported to be "hellish": very harsh, with solitary confinement, flogging, and no visits or contact.[311]
Saudi Arabia is a notable destination country for men and women trafficked for the purposes ofslave labour and sexual exploitation.[312] Migrants from Asia, Africa, and the Middle East are employed in the country's construction, hospitality, and domestic work sectors under thekafala system, which human rights groups say is linked to abuses likeslavery.[313][314]
Saudi Arabia has acommand economy based largely on petroleum; the oil industry accounts for roughly 63%[321] of budget revenue, 67%[322] of export earnings, and 45% of nominal GDP compared with 40% from the private sector. It is strongly dependent on foreign workers, with about 80% of private sector employees being non-Saudi.[323][324] Challenges to the economy include halting or reversing the decline in per-capita income, improving education to prepare youth for the workforce and providing them with employment, diversifying the economy, stimulating the private sector and housing construction, and diminishing corruption and inequality.[325]
Tower ofSaudi Aramco, the world's most valuable company and the main source of revenue for the state
TheOrganization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) limits its members' oil production based on their "proven reserves". Saudi Arabia's published reserves have shown little change since 1980, with the main exception being an increase of about 100 billion barrels (1.6×1010 m3) between 1987 and 1988.[326]Matthew Simmons has suggested that Saudi Arabia is greatly exaggerating its reserves and may soon show production declines (seepeak oil).[327]
From 2003 to 2013, "several key services" were privatized—municipal water supply, electricity, telecommunications—and parts of education and health care, traffic control and car accident reporting were also privatized. According to Arab News columnist Abdel Aziz Aluwaisheg, "in almost every one of these areas, consumers have raised serious concerns about the performance of these privatized entities."[328] In November 2005, Saudi Arabia was approved as a member of theWorld Trade Organization. Negotiations to join had focused on the degree to which Saudi Arabia is willing to increase market access to foreign goods and in 2000, the government established theSaudi Arabian General Investment Authority to encourage foreign direct investment in the kingdom. Saudi Arabia maintains a list of sectors in which foreign investment is prohibited, but the government plans to open some closed sectors such as telecommunications, insurance, and power transmission/distribution over time. The government has also made an attempt at "Saudizing" the economy, replacing foreign workers with Saudi nationals with limited success.[329]
In addition to petroleum and gas, Saudi has a significant gold mining sector in theMahd adh Dhahab region and significant other mineral industries, an agricultural sector (especially in the southwest) based on vegetables, fruits, dates etc. and livestock, and large number of temporary jobs created by the roughly two million annualhajj pilgrims.[325] Saudi Arabia has had five-year "Development Plans" since 1970. Among its plans were to launch "economic cities" (e.g.King Abdullah Economic City) to diversify the economy and provide jobs.
Saudi Arabia is increasingly activating its ports in order to participate in trade between Europe and China in addition to oil transport. To this end, ports such as Jeddah Islamic Port or King Abdullah Economic City are being rapidly expanded, and investments are being made in logistics. The country is historically and currently part of theMaritime Silk Road.[331][332][333][334]
Statistics on poverty in the kingdom are not available through the UN resources because the Saudi government does not issue any.[335] The Saudi state discourages calling attention to or complaining about poverty. In December 2011, the Saudi interior ministry arrested three reporters and held them for almost two weeks for questioning after they uploaded a video on the topic to YouTube.[336][337][338] Authors of the video claim that 22% of Saudis may be considered poor.[339] Observers researching the issue prefer to stay anonymous[340] because of the risk of being arrested.
The unexpected impact of theCOVID-19 pandemic on the economy, along with Saudi Arabia's poor human rights records, laid unforeseen challenges before the development plans of the kingdom, where some of the programmes under 'Vision 2030' were also expected to be affected.[341] In May 2020, theFinance Minister of Saudi Arabia admitted that the country's economy was facing a severe economical crisis for the first time in decades, because of the pandemic as well as declining global oil markets.
In July 2024 Saudi Arabia's Renewable Energy Localisation Company (RELC) has formed three joint ventures with Chinese companies to advance the kingdom's clean energy infrastructure. As part of Saudi Arabia's 2030 targets, thePublic Investment Fund is actively promoting the localization of renewable energy components. RELC, a division of the sovereign fund, facilitates partnerships between global manufacturers and Saudi private sector firms to strengthen local supply chains. These initiatives aim to localize up to 75% of the components used in Saudi Arabia's renewable projects by 2030, positioning the country as a major global exporter of renewable technologies.[342]
Al-Hasa is known for its palm trees and dates. Al-Hasa has over 30 million palm trees which produce over 100 thousand tons of dates every year.
Saudi Arabia's predominantly arid environment, poor soil, and traditional nomadic lifestyle have long favoredpastoralism, particularly of camels, sheep, and goats; agricultural production has historically been localised and oriented towardsbasic subsistence.[343] Less than two percent of the total land area is used for crops, with agriculture constituting only a fraction of GDP (2.5 percent) and employing a similar proportion of the workforce.[344][343]
Initial attempts to develop dairy farming on a commercial scale occurred in theAl Kharj District south of Riyadh during the 1950s.[345] Serious large-scale agricultural development began in the 1970s,[346] particularly with wheat,[347] with the government launching an extensive programme to promote modern farming technology; establish rural roads, irrigation networks and storage and export facilities; and encourage agricultural research and training institutions. The kingdom has continued prioritizing domestic food production through subsidies and generous incentives.[343]
Owing to these efforts, there has been substantial growth in the production of all basic foods: Although it still imports the bulk of its food needs, Saudi Arabia is self-sufficient in several commodities, particularly wheat, meat, milk, and eggs. The country exports dates, dairy products, eggs, fish, poultry, fruits, vegetables, and flowers. Dates, which are indigenous to Saudi Arabia and a traditional staple of its diet, are now mainly grown for global humanitarian aid; the kingdom is the world'ssecond largest producer after Egypt, producing 1.6 million tonnes as of 2022. Another indigenous crop, the olive, is also heavily cultivated: TheAl Jouf region has millions of olive trees—including the world's largest olive farm at 7,713 hectares[348]—and the number is expected to increase to 20 million trees.[349] Saudi farmers also grow substantial amounts of other grains such as barley, sorghum, and millet.
Saudi Arabia has some of the most modern and largest dairy farms in the Middle East; milk production boasts a productive annual rate of 6,800 litres (1,800 US gallons) per cow, one of the highest in the world. Saudi dairy companyAlmarai is the largest vertically integrated dairy company in the Middle East,[350] and the largest dairy firm in the world by volume;[351] it operates the world's largest dairy farm at Al Safi.[352]
Following an end to domestic wheat production in 2016 to preserve water,[353] Saudi Arabia encouraged small famers to produce wheat in 2019 through a domestic production program established under the Saudi Ministry of Environment, Water, and Agriculture (MEWA).[354] In 2025, wheat production is forecast to more than double the five-year average.[355]
Consuming nonrenewable groundwater resulted in the loss of an estimated four-fifths of the total groundwater reserves by 2012.[356] About half the arable land is cultivated throughrain-fed dry farming (mostly inAsir), two-fifths through the planting of local tree crops (namely dates and olives), and the remainder by irrigation, mostly by underground water.
As part of the Saudi Green Initiative, which seeks to restore vegetation cover and ecological sustainability, the kingdom aims to plant 100 millionmangroves; as of 2024, the National Centre for Vegetation Cover Development and Combating Desertification announced it had planted 13 million seedlings.[357]
One of the main challenges for Saudi Arabia iswater scarcity. Substantial investments have been undertaken in seawaterdesalination, water distribution, sewerage andwastewater treatment. Today about 50% of drinking water comes from desalination, 40% from the mining of non-renewable groundwater, and 10% from surface water in the mountainous southwest of the country.[358] Saudi Arabia is suffering from a major depletion of the water in its underground aquifers and a resultant break down and disintegration of its agriculture as a consequence.[359][360] As a result of the catastrophe, Saudi Arabia has bought agricultural land in the United States,[361][362] Argentina,[363] and Africa.[364][365][366][367] Saudi Arabia ranked as a major buyer of agricultural land in foreign countries.[368][369]
Saudi Arabia is the third most water stressed country in the world.[370]
According to theJoint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation of theWHO andUNICEF, the latest reliable source on access to water and sanitation in Saudi Arabia is the 2004 census. It indicates that 97% of the population had access to an improved source of drinking water and 99% had access toimproved sanitation. For 2015, the JMP estimates that access to sanitation increased to 100%. Sanitation was primarily through on-site solutions, and about 40% of the population was connected to sewers.[371] In 2015, 886,000 people lacked access to "improved" water.[372][373]
In 2019, Saudi Arabia adopted a general tourismtravel visa to allow non-Muslims to visit.[374] Although most tourism largely involves religious pilgrimages, there is growth in the leisure tourism sector. According to theWorld Bank, approximately 14.3 million people visited Saudi Arabia in 2012, making it the world's 19th-most-visited country.[375] Tourism is an important component of theSaudi Vision 2030, and according to a report conducted byBMI Research in 2018 both religious and non-religious tourism have significant potential for expansion.[376]
The kingdom offers an electronic visa for foreign visitors to attend sports events and concerts.[377] In 2019, the kingdom announced its plans to open visa applications for visitors, where people from about 50 countries would be able to get tourist visas to Saudi.[378] In 2020 it was announced that holders of a US, UK orSchengen visa are eligible for a Saudi electronic visa upon arrival.[379]
Saudi Arabia's reported population is 32,175,224 as of 2022,[380] making it the fourth most populous country in theArab world.[381] Close to 42% of its inhabitants are immigrants,[382] mostly from the Middle East, Asia, and Africa.[383]
The Saudi population has grown rapidly since 1950, when it was estimated at 3 million.[384] For much of the 20th century, the country had one of the highest population growth rates in the world, at around 3% annually;[385] it continues to grow at a rate of 1.62% per year,[382] slightly higher than the rest of the Middle East and North Africa. Consequently, the Saudipeople are quite young by global standards, with over half the population under 25 years old.[386]
The ethnic composition of Saudi citizens is 90%Arab and 10%Afro-Arab.[387] Most Saudis are concentrated in the southwest; Hejaz, which is the most populated region,[388] is home to one-third of the population, followed by neighbouring Najd (28%) and the Eastern Province (15%).[389] As late as 1970, most Saudis lived a subsistence life in the rural provinces, but in the last half of the 20th century, the kingdom has urbanized rapidly: as of 2023, about 85% of Saudis live in urban metropolitan areas—specifically Riyadh, Jeddah, and Dammam.[390][391] As recently as the early 1960s, Saudi Arabia's slave population was estimated at300000.[392]Slavery was officially abolished in 1962.[393][394]
Christianity is the second largest religion in Saudi Arabia, estimated at around 2.1 million, of whom the vast majority are foreign workers.[424] Saudi Arabia allows Christians to enter the country as temporary foreign workers but does not allow them to practice their faith openly. There are officially no Saudi citizens who are Christians,[425] as Saudi Arabia forbids religious conversion from Islam (apostasy) and punishes it by death.[426] There are over 708,000Hindus in Saudi Arabia, comprising the third largest religion; like other minority faiths in the country, almost all foreign workers.[427] There may be a significant fraction ofatheists andagnostics,[428][429] although they are officially called "terrorists".[430] In its 2017 religious freedom report, the U.S. State Department named Saudi Arabia aCountry of Particular Concern, denoting systematic, ongoing, and egregious violations of religious freedom.[431]
Education is free at all levels, althoughhigher education is restricted to citizens only.[434] The school system is composed ofelementary, intermediate, and secondary schools. Classes are segregated by sex. At the secondary level, students are able to choose from three types of schools: general education, vocational andtechnical, or religious.[435] The rate of literacy is 99% among males and 96% among females in 2020.[436][437] Youth literacy rose to approximately 99.5% for both sexes.[438][439]
The entrance gate ofKing Saud University, the kingdom's oldest university, founded in 1957
In 2018, Saudi Arabia ranked 28th worldwide in terms of high-quality research output according to the scientific journalNature.[443] Saudi Arabia spends 9% of its gross domestic product on education, compared with the global average of 5%.[444] Saudi Arabia was ranked 46th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2025, up from 68th in 2019.[445][446][447][448]
The Saudi education system has been accused of encouragingIslamic terrorism, leading to reform efforts.[449][450] Following the 9/11 attacks, the government aimed to tackle the twin problems of encouraging extremism and the inadequacy of the country's university education for a modern economy, by slowly modernizing the education system through the "Tatweer" reform programme.[449] The Tatweer programme is reported to have a budget of approximately US$2 billion and focuses on moving teaching away from the traditional Saudi methods of memorization and rote learning towards encouraging students to analyse and problem-solve. It also aims to create an education system which will provide a more secular and vocationally based training.[451][452]
In 2021, theWashington Post reported on the measures taken by Saudi Arabia to clean textbooks from paragraphs consideredantisemitic andsexist. The paragraphs dealing with the punishment ofhomosexuality or same-sex relations have been deleted, as well as the expressions of admiration for the extremist martyrdom. Antisemitic expressions and calls to fight the Jews became fewer. David Weinberg, director of international affairs for theAnti-Defamation League, said that references to demonizing Jews, Christians, and Shiites have been removed from some places or have toned down. The U.S. State Department expressed in an e-mail that it welcomed the changes. The Saudi Ministry of Foreign Affairs supports a training programme for Saudi teachers.[453]
Saudi Arabia has a national health care system in which the government provides free health care services through government agencies. Saudi Arabia has been ranked among the 26 best countries in providing high quality healthcare.[454] TheMinistry of Health is the major government agency entrusted with the provision of preventive, curative, and rehabilitative health care. The ministry's origins can be traced to 1925, when several regional health departments were established, with the first in Makkah. The various healthcare institutions were merged to become a ministerial body in 1950.[455] The Health Ministry created a friendly competition between each of the districts and between different medical services and hospitals. This idea resulted in the creation of the "Ada'a" project launched in 2016. The new system is a nationwide performance indicator, for services and hospitals. Waiting times and other major measurements improved dramatically across the kingdom.[456]
Historical development of life expectancy in Saudi Arabia
A new strategy has been developed by the ministry, known as Diet and Physical Activity Strategy or DPAS for short,[457] to address bad lifestyle choices. The ministry advised that there should be a tax increase on unhealthy food, drink, and cigarettes. This additional tax could be used to improve healthcare offerings. The tax was implemented in 2017.[458] As part of the same strategy, calorie labels were added in 2019 to some food and drink products. Ingredients were also listed as an aim to reduce obesity and inform citizens with health issues to manage their diet.[459] As part of the ongoing focus on tackling obesity, women-only gyms were allowed to open in 2017. Sports offered in each of these gyms include bodybuilding, running and swimming to maintain higher standards of health.[460][461]
Smoking in all age groups is widespread. Before 2010, Saudi Arabia had no policies banning or restricting smoking.
The MOH has been awarded "Healthy City" certificates by theWorld Health Organization (WHO) for the cities ofUnayzah andRiyadh Al Khabra as 4th and 5th Healthy Cities in Saudi Arabia.[462]The WHO had earlier classified three Saudi Arabian cities,Ad Diriyah,Jalajil, and Al-Jamoom as "Healthy city", as part of the WHO Healthy Cities Programme. RecentlyAl-Baha has also been classified as a healthy city to join the list of global healthy cities approved by the World Health Organization.[463]
In May 2019, the then Saudi Minister of HealthTawfiq bin Fawzan AlRabiah received a global award on behalf of the Kingdom for combating smoking through social awareness, treatment, and application of regulations.[464] The award was presented as part of the 72nd session of theWorld Health Assembly, held in Geneva in May 2019. After becoming one of the first nations to ratify theWHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in 2005, it plans to reduce tobacco use from 12.7% in 2017, to 5% in 2030.[464]
Saudi Arabia has a life expectancy of 78 years (77 for males and 80 for females) according to the latest data for the year 2022 from the World Bank.[465] Infant mortality in 2022 was 6 per 1000 (6 for males and 5 for females).[465] In 2022, 71.8% of the adult population was overweight and 40.6% was obese.[466]
The Central Department of Statistics & Information estimated the foreign population at the end of 2014 at 33% (10.1 million).[467] The CIA Factbook estimated that as of 2013[update] foreign nationals living in Saudi Arabia made up about 21% of the population.[9] Other sources report differing estimates.[468]Indian: 1.5 million,Pakistani: 1.3 million,[469] Egyptian:900000, Yemeni:800000,Bangladeshi:400000,Filipino:500000, Jordanian/Palestinian:260000,Indonesian:250000, Sri Lankan:350000, Sudanese:250000,Syrian:100000 andTurkish:80000.[470]
According toThe Guardian, as of 2013[update] there were more than half a millionforeign-born domestic workers. Most have backgrounds in poverty and come from Africa, the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.[471] To go to work in Saudi Arabia, they must often pay large sums to recruitment agencies in their home countries. The agencies then handle the necessary legal paperwork.[472]
As the Saudi population grows and oil export revenues stagnate, pressure for "Saudization" (the replacement of foreign workers with Saudis) has grown, and the Saudi government hopes to decrease the number of foreign nationals in the country.[473] Saudi Arabia expelled800000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991[474] and has built aSaudi–Yemen barrier against an influx of illegal immigrants and against the smuggling of drugs and weapons.[475] In November 2013, Saudi Arabia expelled thousands of illegal Ethiopian residents from the kingdom. Various Human Rights entities have criticized Saudi Arabia's handling of the issue.[476]
Over500000undocumented migrant workers—mostly from Somalia, Ethiopia, and Yemen—have been detained and deported since 2013.[477] An investigation led byThe Sunday Telegraph, exposed the condition of African migrants who were detained in Saudi Arabia allegedly for containingCOVID-19 in the kingdom. They were beaten, tortured, and electrocuted. Many of the migrants died due to heatstroke or by attempting suicide, after being severely beaten and tortured. The migrants lack proper living conditions, provision of food and water.[478]
Foreigners cannot apply forpermanent residency, though a specializedPremium Residency visa became available in 2019.[479] Only Muslims can become Saudi citizens.[480] Foreigners who have resided in the kingdom and hold degrees in various scientific fields may apply for Saudi citizenship,[481][482] and exception made for Palestinians who are excluded unless married to a male Saudi national, because ofArab League instructions barring the Arab states from granting them citizenship. Saudi Arabia is not a signatory to the1951 UN Refugee Convention.[483]
Saudi Arabia has millennia-old attitudes and traditions, often derived fromArab civilization. Some of the major factors that influence the culture are Islamic heritage andArab traditions as well as its historical role as an ancient trade centre.[484] The Kingdom also has a very family-oriented culture[485] with an emphasis on preserving family traditions and kinship ties.[486]
Religion in society
Religion is a core aspect of everyday life in Saudi Arabia; it plays a dominant role in the country's governance and legal system, and deeply influences culture and daily life, although the power of the religious establishment has been significantly eroded in the 2010s.[487] TheHejaz region, where theIslamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina are located, is the destination of theḤajj pilgrimage, and often deemed to be the cradle of Islam.[488][i]
Islam is the state religion of Saudi Arabia. There is no law that requires all citizens to be Muslim, but non-Muslims and many foreign and Saudi Muslims whose beliefs are deemed not to conform with the government's interpretation of Islam must practice their religion in private and are vulnerable to discrimination, harassment, detention, and, for foreigners, deportation.[499] Neither Saudi citizens nor guest workers have the right offreedom of religion.[500] The dominant form of Islam in the kingdom—Wahhabism—arose in the central region of Najd, in the 18th century. Proponents call the movement "Salafism",[422] and believe that its teachings purify the practice of Islam of innovations or practices that deviate from the seventh-century teachings of Muhammad andhis companions.[501] The Saudi government has often been viewed as an active oppressor ofShia Muslims because of the funding of the Wahhabi ideology which denounces the Shia faith.[502][503] PrinceBandar bin Sultan, Saudi ambassador to the United States, stated: "The time is not far off in the Middle East when it will be literally 'God help the Shia'. More than a billion Sunnis have simply had enough of them."[504]
Supplicatingpilgrim atAl-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred Mosque) inMecca. TheKaaba (the holiest site of Islam) is the cubic building in front of the pilgrim.
Saudi Arabia is one of the few countries that have "religious police" (known asHaia orMutaween), who patrol the streets "enjoining good and forbidding wrong" by enforcingdress codes, strictseparation of men and women, attendance at prayer (salat) five times each day, the ban on alcohol, and other aspects ofSharia. However, since 2016 the power of religious police was curbed, which barred them from pursuing, questioning, requesting identification or arresting suspects.[505][262] In the privacy of homes, behaviour can be far looser, and reports fromWikiLeaks indicate that low ranked members of the ruling Saudi Royal family indulge in parties with alcohol, drugs, and prostitutes.[506]
Throughout history, women did not have equal rights to men in the kingdom; theU.S. State Department considers the Saudi Arabian government's discrimination against women a "significant problem" and notes that women have few political rights because of the government's discriminatory policies.[507] However, since Mohammed bin Salman was appointed Crown Prince in 2017, a series of social reforms have been witnessed regarding women's rights.
Under previous Saudi law, all females were required to have a male guardian (wali), typically a father, brother, husband, or uncle (mahram). In 2019, this law was partially amended to exclude women over 21 years old from the requirement of a male guardian.[508] The amendment also granted women rights in relation to the guardianship of minor children.[508][509] Previously, girls and women were forbidden from travelling, conducting official business, or undergoing certain medical procedures without permission from their male guardians.[510] In 2019, Saudi Arabia allowed women to travel abroad, register for divorce or marriage, and apply for official documents without the permission of a male guardian.
In 2006,Wajeha al-Huwaider, a leading Saudi feminist and journalist said "Saudi women are weak, no matter how high their status, even the 'pampered' ones among them, because they have no law to protect them from attack by anyone."[511] Following this, Saudi Arabia implemented the anti-domestic violence law in 2014.[512] Furthermore, between 2017 and 2020, the country addressed issues of mobility, sexual harassment, pensions, and employment-discrimination protections.[513][514][515] al-Huwaider and other female activists have applauded the general direction in which the country was headed.[516]
Women face discrimination in the courts, where the testimony of one man equals that of two womenin family and inheritance law.[507] Polygamy is permitted for men,[517] and men have a unilateral right to divorce their wives (talaq) without needing any legal justification.[518] Historically, a woman could only obtain a divorce with the consent of her husband or judicially if her husband has harmed her;[519] however, in 2022, women were granted the right to initiate divorce without the approval of a legal guardian under the new Personal Status Law.[520] With regard to inheritance law, the Quran specifies that fixed portions of the deceased's estate must be left to theQur'anic heirs[521] and generally, female heirs receive half the portion of male heirs.[521]
Saudi Wahhabism is hostile to any reverence given to historical or religious places of significance for fear that it may give rise to'shirk' (idolatry), and the most significant historic Muslim sites (in Mecca and Medina) are located in the western Saudi region of the Hejaz.[488] As a consequence, under Saudi rule an estimated 95% of Mecca's historic buildings, most over a thousand years old,have been demolished for religious reasons.[522] Critics claim that over the last 50 years, 300 historic sites linked to Muhammad, his family or companions have been lost,[523] leaving fewer than 20 structures remaining in Mecca that date back to the time of Muhammad.[524] Demolished structures include the mosque originally built by Muhammad's daughterFatima, and other mosques founded byAbu Bakr (Muhammad's father-in-law and the firstcaliph),Umar (the second caliph),Ali (Muhammad's son-in-law and the fourth caliph), andSalman al-Farsi (another of Muhammad's companions).[525]
In June 2014, the Council of Ministers approved a law that gives theSaudi Commission for Tourism and National Heritage the means to protect Saudi Arabia's ancient relics and historic sites. Within the framework of the 2016 National Transformation Programme, also known asSaudi Vision 2030, the kingdom allocated 900 million euros to preserve its historical and cultural heritage.[535] Saudi Arabia also participates in the International Alliance for the Protection of Heritage in Conflict Areas, created in March 2017, with a contribution of 18.5 million euros.[536]
In 2017, Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman promised to return Saudi Arabia to the "moderate Islam" of the era before the 1979 Iranian revolution.[537] A new centre, the King Salman Complex for the Prophet's Hadith, was established that year to monitor interpretations of the Prophet Mohammed's hadiths to prevent them being used to justifying terrorism.[538]
In March 2018, the Crown Prince met the Archbishop of Canterbury during a visit to the UK, pledging to promote interfaith dialogue. In Riyadh the following month King Salman met the head of the Vatican's Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue.[539] In July 2019, UNESCO signed a letter with the Saudi Minister of Culture in which Saudi Arabia contributed US$25 million to UNESCO for the preservation of heritage.[540]
On November 5, 2024, archeologists published the news of an ancient city discovered in the Saudi oasis ofKhaybar. The city named al-Natah, that dates back some 4,000 years, was inhabited during the Bronze Age around 2,400 BC, and had about 500 houses. Not far, a cluster of graves was found, within them metal weapons.[541]
Saudi Arabian dress strictly follows the principles ofhijab (the Islamic principle of modesty, especially in dress). The predominantly loose and flowing, but covering, garments are suited to Saudi Arabia's desert climate. Traditionally, men usually wear a white ankle-length garment woven from wool or cotton (known as athawb), with akeffiyeh (a large checkered square of cotton held in place by anagal) or a ghutra (a plain white square made of a finer cotton, also held in place by anagal) worn on the head. For rare chilly days, Saudi men wear a camel-hair cloak (bisht) over the top. In public, women are required to wear a blackabaya or other black clothing that covers everything under the neck with the exception of their hands and feet, although most women cover their head in respect of their religion. This requirement applies to non-Muslim women too and failure to abide can result in police action, particularly in more conservative areas of the country. Women's clothes are often decorated with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and appliques.[542]
King Abdullah practisingfalconry, a traditional pursuit in the country
During the 1970s, cinemas were numerous in the kingdom although they were seen as contrary to Wahhabi norms.[543] During theIslamic revival movement in the 1980s, and as a political response to an increase in Islamist activism including the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, the government closed all cinemas and theatres. However, with King Abdullah and King Salman's reforms, cinemas re-opened,[544] including one inKAUST.
From the 18th century onward, Wahhabi fundamentalism discouraged artistic development inconsistent with its teaching. In addition, Sunni Islamic prohibition of creating representations of people have limited the visual arts, which tend to be dominated bygeometric,floral, and abstract designs and bycalligraphy. With the advent of the oil-wealth in the 20th century came exposure to outside influences, such as Western housing styles, furnishings, and clothes. Music and dance have always been part of Saudi life. Traditional music is generally associated with poetry and is sung collectively. Instruments include therabābah, an instrument not unlike a three-string fiddle, and various types of percussion instruments, such as the ṭabl (drum) and the ṭār (tambourine). The national dance is a native sword dance known asardah. Originating from Najd, it involves lines or circles of men and singing poetry.[545] Bedouin poetry, known as nabaṭī, is popular.[138]
Censorship has limited the development of Saudi literature, although severalSaudi novelists and poets have achieved critical and popular acclaim in the Arab world—albeit generating official hostility in their home country. These includeGhazi Algosaibi,Mansour al-Nogaidan,Abdelrahman Munif,Turki al-Hamad, andRajaa al-Sanea.[546][547][548] In 2016, the General Entertainment Authority (GEA) was formed to oversee the expansion of the Saudi entertainment sector.[549]The first concerts in Riyadh for 25 years took place the following year.[550] Other events since the GEA's creation have included comedy shows, professional wrestling events, and monster truck rallies.[551] In 2018 the first public cinema opened after a ban of 35 years, with plans to have more than2000 screens running by 2030.[552]
Television was introduced in Saudi Arabia in 1954. Saudi Arabia is a major market forpan-Arab satellite andpay-TV. It controls the largest share of the pan-Arab broadcasting market; among the major Saudi-owned broadcasting companies are theMiddle East Broadcasting Centre,Rotana, and theSaudi Broadcasting Authority.[554] The Saudi governmentclosely monitors media and restricts it under official state law. Changes have been made to lessen these restrictions; however, some government-led efforts to control information have also drawn international attention. As of 2022,Reporters Without Borders rates the kingdom's press a "very serious" situation.[555]
Most of the early newspapers in the Persian Gulf region were established in Saudi Arabia.[556] The first newspaper founded in the country and in the Persian Gulf area isAl Fallah, which was launched in 1920,[556] and the first English-language newspaper isArab News, which was launched in 1975.[557] All of thenewspapers published in Saudi Arabia are privately owned.[558]
According toWorld Bank, as of 2020, 98% of the population of Saudi Arabia are internet users which puts it in the 8th rank among countries with the highest percentage of internet users.[559] Saudi Arabia has one of the fastest5G internet speeds in the world.[560][561] The kingdom is the 27th largest market fore-commerce with a revenue of US$8 billion in 2021.[562]
Arabic coffee is a traditional beverage in Arabian cuisine.
Saudi Arabian cuisine is similar to that of the surrounding countries in the Arabian Peninsula and the wider Arab world, and has influenced and been influenced by Turkish, Indian, Persian, and African food.Islamic dietary laws are enforced: pork is not allowed, and other animals are slaughtered in accordance withhalal.Kebabs andfalafel are popular, as isshawarma, a marinated grilled meat dish of lamb, mutton, or chicken.Kabsa, a rice dish with lamb, chicken, fish, or shrimp, is among the national dishes as ismandi. Flat, unleavenedtaboon bread is a staple of virtually every meal, as are dates, fresh fruit, yoghurt, and hummus. Coffee, served in theArabic style, is the traditional beverage, but tea and various fruit juices are popular as well.[138] The earliest substantiated evidence of eithercoffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree is from the 15th century, in theSufi monasteries of Arabia.
Scuba diving, windsurfing, sailing, and basketball (which is played by both men and women) are also popular with theSaudi Arabian national basketball team winning bronze at the1999 Asian Championship.[563][564][565] More traditional sports such ashorse racing andcamel racing are also popular. The annual King's Camel Race, begun in 1974, is one of the sport's most important contests and attracts animals and riders from throughout the region.Falconry is another traditional pursuit.[138]
Women's sport is controversial because of the suppression of female participation in sport by conservative Islamic religious authorities,[566] however the restrictions have eased.[567][568][569] Until 2018 women were not permitted in sport stadiums. Segregated seating, allowing women to enter, has been developed in three stadiums across major cities.[570] Since 2020, the progress of women's integration into the Saudi sport scene began to develop rapidly.[571][572] 25 Saudi sport federations established a national women's team,[573] including a nationalfootball andbasketball team. In November 2020, theSaudi Arabian Football Federation announced the launch of the first nationwideSaudi women's premier league.[574]
In its vision for modernization, the nation has introduced many international sporting events, bringing sports stars to the kingdom. However, in August 2019, the kingdom's strategy received criticism for appearing as a method ofsportswashing soon after Saudi's US-based 2018 lobbying campaign foreign registration documentations got published online. The documents showed Saudi Arabia as allegedly implementing a sportswashing strategy, including meetings and official calls with authorities of associations likeMajor League Soccer,World Wrestling Entertainment, and theNational Basketball Association.[575]
In December 2024, Saudi Arabia was confirmed as host of the2034 FIFA World Cup.[576] Developments of stadiums to be used for the event are ongoing. There are reportedly 11 new stadiums being built and airports are scheduled to be expanded to accommodate the expected influx of passengers.[577]
^TheShahādah (Statement of faith) is sometimes translated into English as 'There is no god but Allah', using theromanization of theArabic wordAllāh instead of its translation. The wordAllāh (Arabic:اللَّٰه) literally translates asGod.[2][3][4]
^The Consultative Assembly or Shura Council has no real legislative power,[7] as its role is only consultative.[8]
^"God".Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS.Archived from the original on 27 March 2014. Retrieved3 September 2017.
^'Islam and Christianity',Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God asAllah.
^L. Gardet. "Allah".Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ab"Basic Law of Governance".Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education – Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Archived fromthe original on 5 December 2022. Retrieved1 September 2020.
^"Saudi Arabia"(PDF).U.S. Department of State.According to the basic law, Sunni Islam is the official religion and the country's constitution is the Qur'an and the Sunna (traditions and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad).
^abReichl, Karl, ed. (2012).Medieval Oral Literature.De Gruyter. p. 633.ISBN9783110241129.Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved21 January 2024.With the unprecedented victorious spread of Islam within only a few years over a huge territory…
^Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994),The End of the Jihad State, the Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads, State University of New York Press, p. 37,ISBN978-0-7914-1827-7
^Joy Winkie Viola (1986).Human Resources Development in Saudi Arabia: Multinationals and Saudization. International Human Resources Development Corporation. p. 37.ISBN978-0-88746-070-8.
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^abToby Craig Jones (2010).Desert Kingdom: How Oil and Water Forged Modern Saudi Arabia. Harvard University Press. pp. 218–219.ISBN978-0-674-04985-7.
^El-Gamal, Mahmoud A. & Amy Myers Jaffe (2010).Oil, Dollars, Debt, and Crises: The Global Curse of Black Gold. Cambridge University Press. p. 41.ISBN978-0-521-72070-0.
^Nowell, K.; Jackson, P. (1996)."Asiatic cheetah"(PDF).Wild Cats: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group. pp. 41–44.ISBN978-2-8317-0045-8.Archived(PDF) from the original on 29 May 2005. Retrieved5 August 2018.
^Nader, I. A. (1989)."Rare and endangered mammals of Saudi Arabia"(PDF). In Abu-Zinada, A. H.; Goriup, P. D.; Nader, L. A (eds.).Wildlife conservation and development in Saudi Arabia.Riyadh: National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development Publishing. pp. 220–228.Archived(PDF) from the original on 26 January 2019. Retrieved28 March 2024.
^abFroese, Ranier; Pauly, Daniel (2009)."FishBase".Archived from the original on 17 December 2020. Retrieved12 March 2009.
^Siliotti, A. (2002). Verona, Geodia (ed.).Fishes of the red sea. Geodia Edizioni Internazionali.ISBN978-88-87177-42-8.
^Schlager, Weisblatt, Neil, Jayne; A. Faksh, Hendrickson, Mahmud, Mary (2006). "Kingdom of Saudi Arabia".World Encyclopedia of Political Systems and Parties (4th ed.). New York City: Facts on File. p. 1171.ISBN978-0-8160-5953-9.Saudi Arabia is not totalitarian. Travel outside the country is common, political crimes and violence are rare, people are not in constant fear of the police, and the state does not try to take over all existing organizations, such as philanthropic, religious, commercial, and industrial groups. Saudi rulers still see themselves in a parental role, much like a sheikh of a tribe who is in close touch with the concerns of his tribesmen and keeps those concerns in balance. For so long a time, a relatively benign monarchy has ruled over this populace that it has become used to being looked after in this manner. Therefore, until recently, calls for a more open, representative political system did not win wide support.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Oliver Collin, L. Martin, Richard, Pamela (2013).An Introduction to World Politics. United Kingdom: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 269.ISBN978-1-4422-1803-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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^The Report: Saudi Arabia. Oxford Business Group. 2009. p. 202.ISBN978-1-902339-00-9.it is not always possible to reach a conclusion on how a Saudi court or judicial committee would view a particular case [because] decisions of a court or a judicial committee have no binding authority with respect to another case, [and] in general there is also no system of court reporting in the Kingdom.
^Hefner, Robert W. (2011).Shari'a Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World. Indiana University Press. p. 58.ISBN978-0-253-22310-4.
^Juan Eduardo Campo (2006).Encyclopedia of Islam. Facts On File. p. 288.ISBN978-0-8160-5454-1.
^"OPEC : Brief History".OPEC.org. Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries.Archived from the original on 28 February 2013. Retrieved20 May 2015.
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^"China's Alliance With Russia Weakens Its Position in Eastern Europe".Morning Consult. 4 August 2022.Archived from the original on 14 February 2024.Besides Russia, the five countries with the most favorable views of China are Pakistan, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Peru and Colombia, just ahead of two of China's major fossil fuel sources, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.
^"Which Countries Are For or Against China's Xinjiang Policies?".The Diplomat. 15 July 2019.Archived from the original on 11 October 2019. Retrieved19 July 2019.For other states, such as Russia, Saudi Arabia, and North Korea, their own human rights records at home have come under frequent attack abroad and so defending China becomes a roundabout way of defending themselves.
^Tian, Nan; Lopes Da Silva, Diego; Liang, Xiao; Scarazzato, Lorenzo (April 2024)."Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2023".Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Retrieved4 February 2025.
^Wezeman, Pieter D.; Djokic, Katarina; George, Mathew; Hussain, Zain; Wezeman, Siemon T. (March 2024)."Trends in International Arms Transfers".Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Retrieved4 February 2025.
^abGambrell, Jon (12 March 2022)."Saudi Arabia puts 81 to death in its largest mass execution".AP NEWS.Archived from the original on 24 October 2022. Retrieved24 October 2022.Well about the death penalty, we got rid of all of it, except for one category, and this one is written in the Quran
^"Saudi Arabia".freedomhouse.org. 1 November 2018. Archived fromthe original on 22 February 2020. Retrieved31 March 2019.
^Handrahan LM (Spring 2001). "Gender Apartheid and Cultural Absolution: Saudi Arabia and the International Criminal Court".Human Rights Tribune'.8 (1). Human Rights Internet.[dead link]
^"Saudi Arabia: "It's like we are not human": Forced returns, abhorrent detention conditions of Ethiopian migrants in Saudi Arabia".Amnesty International. 16 December 2022. p. 6.Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved14 March 2024.Under Saudi Arabia's repressive sponsorship (kafala) system, migrant workers are only able to obtain a work permit or residency through an employer, and they are only able to terminate their contracts or change employers under certain conditions without the consent of their employer. Those who lose their residency status, either because they leave their jobs without the consent of the employer or overstay their work permits, and those who are unable to find employment in the formal sector are at risk of arbitrary detention, deportation to their home country by the authorities, as well as abuses such as forced labour and physical and sexual assault.
^Balamir Coşkun, Bezen (Winter 2009)."Global Energy Geopolitics and Iran"(PDF).Uluslararası İlişkiler.5 (20):179–201. Archived from the original on 1 April 2014.
^Coy, Peter (16 July 2014)."Online Education Targets Saudi Arabia's Labor Problem, Starting With Women".Bloomberg Businessweek. Archived fromthe original on 17 July 2014.Saudi citizens account for two-thirds of employment in the high-paying, comfortable public sector, but only one-fifth of employment in the more dynamic private sector, according to the International Monetary Fund (PDF).
^Economists "estimate only 30–40 percent of working-age Saudis hold jobs or actively seek work," the official employment rate of around 12 percent notwithstanding:McDowall, Angus (19 January 2014)."Saudi Arabia doubles private sector jobs in 30-month period". Reuters.
^House, p. 161: "Over the past decade, the government has announced one plan after another to 'Saudize' the economy, but to no avail. The foreign workforce grows, and so does unemployment among Saudis. .... The previous plan called for slashing unemployment to 2.8% only to see it rise to 10.5% in 2009, the end of that plan period. Government plans in Saudi are like those in the old Soviet Union, grandiose but unmet. (Also, as in the old Soviet Union, nearly all Saudi official statistics are unreliable, so economists believe the real Saudi unemployment rate is closer to 40%)"
^One journalist states that 51% of the Saudi population is under the age of 25:Caryle Murphy (7 February 2012)."Saudi Arabia's Youth and the Kingdom's Future". Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars' Environmental Change and Security Program. Two other sources state that 60% is under the age of 21:"Out of the comfort zone".The Economist. 3 March 2012.,House, p. 221
^"Saudi Arabia".The World Factbook. Cia.gov. 8 February 2022.
^"Mecca: Islam's cosmopolitan heart". Archived fromthe original on 14 December 2018. Retrieved8 July 2014.The Hijaz is the largest, most populated, and most culturally and religiously diverse region of Saudi Arabia, in large part because it was the traditional host area of all the pilgrims to Mecca, many of whom settled and intermarried there.
^House, p. 69: "Most Saudis only two generations ago eked out a subsistence living in rural provinces, but ... urbanization over the past 40 years [so now] .... fully 80% of Saudis now live in one of the country's three major urban centers – Riyadh, Jeddah, and Dammam."
^Data for Saudi Arabia comes primarily from general population surveys, which are less reliable than censuses or large-scale demographic and health surveys for estimating minority-majority ratios.
^al-Qudaihi, Anees (24 March 2009)."Saudi Arabia's Shia press for rights". bbc.Although they only represent 15% of the overall Saudi population of more than 25 million ...
^Beehner, Lionel (16 June 2006)."Shia Muslims in the Mideast". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived fromthe original on 11 April 2010. Retrieved12 March 2015.Small but potentially powerful Shiite are found throughout the Gulf States ... Saudi Arabia (15 percent)
^P.K. Abdul Ghafour (21 October 2011)."3 million expats to be sent out gradually". Archived fromthe original on 8 November 2011. Retrieved7 December 2016.Nearly three million expatriate workers will have to leave the Kingdom in the next few years as the Labour Ministry has put a 20% ceiling on the country's guest workers
^Doumato, Eleanor (2005)."Saudi Arabia". In Nazir, Sameena; Tomppert, Leigh (eds.).Women's Rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Citizenship and Justice. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 259.ISBN978-0-7425-4992-0.
^Grinberg and Hallam, Emanuella and Jonny (30 October 2017)."Saudi Arabia to let women into sports stadiums".CNN/2017/10/29/middleeast/saudi-arabia-women-sports-arenas/index.html. CNN. Retrieved11 December 2017.
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Tripp, Harvey; North, Peter (2003).Culture Shock, Saudi Arabia. A Guide to Customs and Etiquette. Singapore; Portland, Oregon: Times Media Private Limited.
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