| Sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II | |
|---|---|
.jpg) The sarcophagus at theLouvre, 2022 | |
| Material | Amphibolite |
| Length | 2.56 m (8.4 ft) |
| Height | 1.19 m (3.9 ft) |
| Width | 1.25 m (4.1 ft) |
| Writing | Phoenician language |
| Created | 6th-century BC |
| Period/culture | Achaemenid Phoenicia |
| Discovered | 19 January 1855 Magahret Abloun [Cavern ofApollo],Sidon, modern-dayLebanon 33°33′07″N35°22′25″E / 33.55194°N 35.37361°E /33.55194; 35.37361 |
| Discovered by | Alphonse Durighello |
| Present location | TheLouvre,Paris |
| Identification | AO 4806 |
| Language | Phoenician |
| Culture | Ancient Egyptian,Phoenician |
Thesarcophagus ofEshmunazar II is a 6th-century BCsarcophagus unearthed in 1855 in the grounds of an ancientnecropolis southeast of the city ofSidon, in modern-dayLebanon, that contained the body ofEshmunazar II (Phoenician:𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓ʾšmnʿzr,r. c. 539 – c. 525 BC),PhoenicianKing of Sidon. One of only threeAncient Egyptian sarcophagi found outside Egypt – the other two belonged to Eshmunazar's father KingTabnit and to a woman, possibly Eshmunazar's mother QueenAmoashtart – it was likely carved inEgypt from localamphibolite, and captured as booty by the Sidonians during their participation inCambyses II'sconquest of Egypt in 525 BC. The sarcophagus has two sets ofPhoenician inscriptions, one on its lid and a partial copy of it on the sarcophagus trough, around the curvature of the head. The lid inscription was of great significance upon its discovery, as it was the firstPhoenician language inscription to be discovered in Phoenicia proper and the most detailed Phoenician text ever found anywhere up to that point, and is today the second longest extant Phoenician inscription, after theKaratepe bilingual.
The sarcophagus was discovered byAlphonse Durighello, a diplomatic agent in Sidon engaged byAimé Péretié, thechancellor of the Frenchconsulate inBeirut. The sarcophagus was sold toHonoré de Luynes, a wealthyFrench nobleman and scholar, and was subsequently removed to theLouvre after the resolution of a legal dispute over its ownership.
More than a dozen scholars across Europe and the United States rushed to translate the sarcophagus inscriptions after its discovery, many noting the similarities between the Phoenician language andHebrew. The translation allowed scholars to identify the king buried inside, his lineage, and his construction feats. The inscription warns against disturbing Eshmunazar II's place of repose. It also recounts that the "Lord of Kings", theAchaemenid king, granted Eshmunazar II the territories ofDor,Joppa, andDagon in recognition for his services.
The discovery led to great enthusiasm for archaeological research in the region and was the primary reason for Renan's 1860–1861Mission de Phénicie, the first major archaeological mission to Lebanon and Syria. Today it remains one of the highlights of the Louvre's Phoenician collection.
Eshmunazar II (Phoenician:𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓ʾšmnʿzr, atheophoric name meaning 'Eshmun helps')[1][2] was thePhoenicianKing of Sidon, reigningc. 539 BC toc. 525 BC.[3] He was the grandson of KingEshmunazar I and a vassal king of theAchaemenid Empire. Eshmunazar II succeeded his father,Tabnit I, on the throne ofSidon. Tabnit I ruled briefly before his death, and his sister-wife,Amoashtart, acted as an interregnum regent until the birth of Eshmunazar II. Amoashtart then ruled as Eshmunazar II's regent until he reached adulthood. Eshmunazar II, however, died prematurely at age 14 during the reign ofCambyses II of Achaemenid Persia, and was succeeded by his cousinBodashtart.[4][5][6] Eshmunazar II, like his mother,[7] father and grandfather, was a priest ofAstarte.[8][9] Temple building and religious activities were important for the Sidonian kings to demonstrate their piety and political power. Eshmunazar II and his mother, Queen Amoashtart, constructed new temples and religious buildings dedicated toPhoenician gods such asBaal, Astarte, and Eshmun.[9][10]
The Phoenicians emerged as a distinct culture on theLevantine coast in theLate Bronze Age (c. 1550 – c. 1200 BC) as one of thesuccessor cultures to theCanaanites.[11][12] They were organized into independentcity-states that shared a common language, culture, and religious practices. They had, however, diverse mortuary practices, includinginhumation andcremation.[13]
Archaeological evidence of elite Achaemenid period burials abounds in the hinterland of Sidon. These include inhumations in underground vaults, rock-cut niches, and shaft and chamber tombs inSarepta,[14]Ain al-Hilweh,[15] Ayaa,[16][17] Magharet Abloun,[18] and theTemple of Eshmun in Bustan el-Sheikh.[19] Elite Phoenician burials were characterized by the use of sarcophagi, and a consistent emphasis on the integrity of the tomb.[20][21] Surviving mortuary inscriptions from that period invoke deities to assist with the procurement of blessings, and to conjure curses and calamities on whoever desecrated the tomb.[22]
The first record of the discovery of an ancientnecropolis in Sidon was made in 1816 by English explorer andEgyptologistWilliam John Bankes.[23][24][note 1]
The sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II was discovered on 19 January 1855[25][note 2] by the workmen ofAlphonse Durighello, an agent of the French consulate in Sidon hired byAimé Péretié, an amateurarchaeologist and thechancellor of the Frenchconsulate in Beirut.[28][29][30] Durighello's men were digging on the plains southeast of the city of Sidon in the grounds of an ancient necropolis (dubbedNécropole Phénicienne by FrenchSemiticphilologist and biblical scholarErnest Renan). The sarcophagus was found outside a hollowed-out rocky mound that was known to locals as Magharet Abloun ('the Cavern ofApollo').[28][29] It had originally been protected by a vault, of which some stones remained in place. One tooth, a piece of bone, and a human jaw were found in the rubble during the sarcophagus extraction, showing that the remains of Eshmunazar II had been robbed in antiquity.[28]
Cornelius Van Alen Van Dyck, an American missionary physician, made it to the scene and made a transcript of the inscription which was first published on 11 February 1855 inThe United States Magazine.[31][32]
On 20 February 1855, Durighello informed Péretié of the find.[28][29][30] Durighello had taken advantage of the absence of laws governing archaeological excavation and the disposition of the finds under theOttoman rule, and had been involved in the lucrative business of trafficking archaeological artifacts. Under the Ottomans, it sufficed to either own the land or to have the owner's permission to excavate. Any finds resulting from digs became the property of the finder.[33] To excavate, Durighello had bought the exclusive right from the land owner, theMufti of Sidon, Mustapha Effendi.[28][33][34]
Durighello's ownership of the sarcophagus was contested by the British vice-consul general in Syria,Habib Abela,[36][37] who claimed he had entered into agreements with the workers and the landowner to assign and sell him the rights to any discoveries.[note 4] The matter quickly took a political turn; in a letter dated 21 April 1855 the director of the French national museums, CountÉmilien de Nieuwerkerke, requested the intervention ofÉdouard Thouvenel, the French ambassador to the Ottomans, stating that "It is in the best interest of the museum to possess the sarcophagus as it adds a new value at a time in which we start studying with great zeal Oriental antiquities, until now unknown in most of Europe."[37] A commission was appointed by the governor of theSidon Eyalet, Wamik Pasha, to look into the case, and, according to the minutes of the meeting dated 24 April 1855, the dispute resolution was transferred to a commission of European residents that unanimously voted in favor of Durighello.[33][39][40][38]
The United States Magazine reported on the issue of the legal dispute:
In the meantime, a controversy has arisen in regard to the ownership of the discovered monument, between the English and French Consuls in this place, one having made a contract with the owner of the land, by which he was entitled to whatever he should discover in it; and the other having engaged an Arab to dig for him, who came upon the sarcophagus in the other consul's limits, or, as the Californians would say, within his "claim".
— United States Magazine correspondent, 1855, p. 379[41]
Péretié purchased the sarcophagus from Durighello and sold it to wealthyFrench nobleman and scholarHonoré de Luynes for£400. De Luynes donated the sarcophagus to the French government to be exhibited in theLouvre.[33][42][43]
Péretié rushed the sarcophagus' laborious transportation to France. The bureaucratic task of removing the sarcophagus to France was facilitated with the intervention ofFerdinand de Lesseps, then the French consul general in Alexandria, and the French minister of education and religious affairs,Hippolyte Fortoul. During the transportation to the Sidon port, the citizens and the governor of Sidon gathered, escorted, and applauded the convoy; they adorned the sarcophagus with flowers and palm branches while 20 oxen, assisted by French sailors, dragged the carriage to the port.[44] At thewharf, the crew of theFrench navycorvetteSérieuse loaded the sarcophagus' trough, and then its lid, onto abarge, before lifting it to the ship. The commander ofSérieuse, Delmas De La Perugia, read an early translation of the inscriptions, explaining the scientific importance and historical significance of the cargo to his crew.[44][45]
The sarcophagus of King Eshmunazar II is housed in the Louvre's Near Eastern antiquities section in room 311 of theSully wing. It was given the museum identification number of AO 4806.[29]
The Egyptiananthropoid-style sarcophagus dates to the 6th century BC[46] and is made of a solid, well polished block of bluish-blackamphibolite.[47][43] It measures 256 cm (8.40 ft) long, 125 cm (4.10 ft) wide, and 119 cm (3.90 ft) high.[note 5][29]
The lid displays arelief carving of the figure of a deceased person in the style ofEgyptian mummy sarcophagi.[43] The effigy of the deceased is portrayed smiling,[39] wrapped up to the neck in a thick shroud, leaving the head uncovered. The effigy is dressed with a largeNubian wig, a false braided beard, and ausekh collar ending with falcon heads at each of its extremities, as is often seen at the neck of Egyptian mummies.[29][28][39]
Two other sarcophagi of the same style were also unearthed in the necropolis.[48]
The Egyptian-style sarcophagus has nohieroglyphs; however, there are Phoenician inscriptions on its lid and trough.[28][49][50] De Luynes and American philologistWilliam Wadden Turner believed that the inscriptions were traced directly on the stone free-hand without the use of typographic guides forletter-spacing, and that these tracings were followed by the carving artisan.[51]
The inscriptions of the sarcophagus of Eshmunazar are known to scholars asCIS I 3 andKAI 14; they are written in the Phoenician language andalphabet. They identify the king buried inside, tell of his lineage and temple construction feats, and warn against disturbing his repose.[52] The inscriptions also state that the "Lord of Kings" (the AchaemenidKing of Kings) granted the Sidonian king "Dor andJoppa, the mighty lands ofDagon, which are in theplain of Sharon" in recognition of his deeds.[52] According to Scottishbiblical scholarJohn Gibson the text "offers an unusually high proportion of literary parallels with theHebrew Bible, especially its poetic sections".[50] FrenchorientalistJean-Joseph-Léandre Bargès wrote that the language is "identical with Hebrew, except for the final inflections of a few words and certain expressions."[note 6][53]
As in other Phoenician inscriptions, the text seems to use no, or hardly any,matres lectionis, the letters that indicate vowels in Semitic languages. As inAramaic, theprepositionאית (ʾyt) is used as anaccusative marker, whileאת (ʾt) is used for 'with'.[54]
The lid inscription consists of 22 lines of 40 to 55 letters each;[28][55] it occupies a square situated under the sarcophagus' usekh collar and measures 84 cm (2.76 ft) in length and width.[40][43] As is customary for Phoenician writing, all the characters are written without spaces separating each word, except for a space in the 13th line, which divides the text into two equal parts.[56] The lid letters are not evenly spaced, ranging from no distance to a spacing of 6.35 mm (0.250 in). The lines of the text are neither straight nor evenly spaced. The letters in the lower part of the text (after thelacuna on line 13) are neater and smaller than the letters in the first part of the inscription.[51] The letters of the first three lines of the lid inscription are cut deeper and rougher than the rest of the text which indicates that the engraver was either replaced or made to work more neatly.[51]
_(cropped).jpg)
-Standalone_letters_on_the_sarcophagus_of_Eshmunazar_II.jpg)
A copy of the first part (twelve and a half lines) of the lid inscription is carved delicately and uniformly on six lines around the head curvature on the trough of the sarcophagus, with the letters corresponding in size and style to the second part of the lid inscription. An unfinished seventh line matches the first nine characters that form the beginning of the text that begins after the lacuna on the 13th line of the lid inscription.[51][50][56] It measures 140 cm (4.6 ft) in width, significantly wider than the lid inscription.[40]
The relationship between the trough and the lid inscription has been discussed amongst scholars. Turner believed that the similarity of the trough's characters to those of Part II of the lid inscription suggested that the trough was inscribed immediately after the completion of the lid. Turner speculated that this may have been to claim both parts of the sarcophagus as Eshmunazar's property, and suggested that the original intention was to copy the whole of the lid inscription, but after the copy of Part II had started, it was concluded that the ornamental line which runs round the outside of the sarcophagus would have divided the inscription in an unattractive manner. Turner's theory was in contrast to GermantheologianHeinrich Ewald's earlier proposal that originally the entire inscription had been intended to be engraved around the trough, to represent it as proceeding from his mouth, but error(s) made in the writing caused it to be abandoned, and the inscription started again on the lid.[57]
The external surface of the trough bears also an isolated group of two Phoenician characters. De Luynes believes that they may have been trial carving marks made by the engraver.[58]
Copies of the sarcophagus inscriptions were sent to scholars across the world,[59] and translations were published by well-known scholars (see below table).[60] Several other scholars worked on the translation, including thepolymathJosiah Willard Gibbs,Hebrew language scholarWilliam Henry Green, Biblical scholarsJames Murdock and Williams Jenks, andSyriac language expertChristian Frederic Crusé.[61] American missionariesWilliam McClure Thomson andEli Smith who were living inOttoman Syria at the time of the discovery of the sarcophagus successfully translated most of the text by early 1855, but did not produce any publications.[61]
BelgiansemitistJean-Claude Haelewyck provided a hypothetical vocalization of the Phoenician text. A definitive vocalization is not possible because Phoenician is written withoutmatres lectionis. Haelewyck based the premise of his vocalization on the affinity of the Phoenician and Hebrew languages, historical grammar, and ancient transcriptions.[62]
A list of early published translations follows below:[60]
| Author | Memoir | Previous interpretations consulted | Published work |
|---|---|---|---|
| Edward E. Salisbury | 1855 | Phoenician Inscription of Sidon[63] | |
| William Wadden Turner | 3 July 1855 | The Sidon Inscription[64] | |
| Emil Rödiger | 15 June 1855 | Bemerkungen über die phönikische Inschrift eines am 19. Januar 1855 nahe bei Sidon gefundenen Königs-Sarkophag's[65] | |
| Franz Dietrich andJohann Gildemeister | 1 July 1855 | Zwei Sidonische Inschriften, eine griechische aus christlicher Zeit und eine altphönicische Königsinschrift[66] | |
| Ferdinand Hitzig | 30 September 1855 | Rödiger, Dietrich. | Die Grabschrift des Eschmunazar[67] |
| Konstantin Schlottmann | December 1855 | Rödiger, Dietrich, Hitzig, De Luynes and Ewald. | Die Inschrift Eschmunazar's, Königs der Sidonier[68] |
| Honoré Théodoric d'Albert de Luynes | 15 December 1855 | Mémoire sur le Sarcophage et inscription funéraire d'Esmunazar, roi de Sidon[69] | |
| Heinrich Ewald | 19 January 1856 | Salisbury, Turner, Roidiger, Dietrich, Hitzig. | Erklärung der grossen phönikischen inschrift von Sidon und einer ägyptisch-aramäischen : mit den zuverlässigen abbildern beider[70] |
| Jean-Joseph-Léandre Bargès | 1856 | Salisbury, Turner, Rödiger, Dietrich, Hitzig, De Luynes, Ewald (?). | Mémoire sur le sarcophage et l'inscription funéraire d'Eschmounazar, roi de Sidon[71] |
| Salomon Munk | 6 April 1856 | Salisbury, Turner, Rödiger, Dietrich, Hitzig, DeLuynes, Bargès. | Essais sur l'inscription phénicienne du sarcophage d'Eschmoun-'Ezer, roi de Sidon[72] |
| Moritz Abraham Levy | August 1856 | Salisbury, Turner, Rödiger, Dietrich, Hitzig, Ewald, De Luynes, Munk | Phönizisches Wörterbuch[73] |
| Line number | Original Phoenician inscription[52] | Transliteration[52][74] | Transcription[62] | English translation[74] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 𐤁𐤉𐤓𐤇 𐤁𐤋 𐤁𐤔𐤍𐤕 𐤏𐤎𐤓 𐤅𐤀𐤓𐤁𐤏 𐤗𐤖𐤖𐤖𐤖 𐤋𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤉 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌 | BYRḤ BL BŠNT ʿSR WʾRBʿ 14 LMLKY MLK ʾŠMNʿZR MLK ṢDNM | biyarḥ būl bišanōt[75] ʿasr we-ʾarbaʿ[76] lemulkiyū milk ʾèšmūnʿazar milk ṣīdōnīm | In the month ofBul, in the fourteenth year of the reign of king Eshmunazar, king of the Sidonians |
| 2 | 𐤁𐤍 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤕𐤁𐤍𐤕 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤃𐤁𐤓 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤋𐤀𐤌𐤓 𐤍𐤂𐤆𐤋𐤕 | BN MLK TBNT MLK ṢDNM DBR MLK ʾŠMNʿZR MLK ṢDNM LʾMR NGZLT | bin milk tabnīt milk ṣīdōnīm dabar milk ʾèšmūnʿazar milk ṣīdōnīm līʾmōr nagzaltī[77] | son of king Tabnit, king of the Sidonians, king Eshmunazar, king of the Sidonians, said as follows: I was carried away |
| 3 | 𐤁𐤋 𐤏𐤕𐤉 𐤁𐤍 𐤌𐤎𐤊 𐤉𐤌𐤌 𐤀𐤆𐤓𐤌 𐤉𐤕𐤌 𐤁𐤍 𐤀𐤋𐤌𐤕 𐤅𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤀𐤍𐤊 𐤁𐤇𐤋𐤕 𐤆 𐤅𐤁𐤒𐤁𐤓 𐤆 | BL ʿTY BN MSK YMM ʾZRM YTM BN ʾLMT WŠKB ʾNK BḤLT Z WBQBR Z | bal[78] ʿittiya bin masok yōmīm ʾazzīrīm yatum bin ʾalmatt[75] wešōkéb ʾanōkī[79] biḥallot zō webiqabr zè | before my time, son of a limited number of short days (or: son of a limited number of days I was cut off), an orphan, the son of a widow, and I am lying in this coffin and in this tomb, |
| 4 | 𐤁𐤌𐤒𐤌 𐤀𐤔 𐤁𐤍𐤕 𐤒𐤍𐤌𐤉 𐤀𐤕 𐤊𐤋 𐤌𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 𐤅𐤊𐤋 𐤀𐤃𐤌 𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤐𐤕𐤇 𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤆 𐤅 | BMQM ʾŠ BNT QNMY ʾT KL MMLKT WKL ʾDM ʾL YPTḤ ʾYT MŠKB Z W | bammaqōm ʾéš banītī[80] qenummiya ʾatta kull[81] mamlokūt wekull[81] ʾadōm[81] ʾal yiptaḥ ʾiyat miškob zè we- | in a place which I have built. Whoever you are, king or (ordinary) man, may he [sic] not open this resting-place and |
| 5 | 𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤁𐤒𐤔 𐤁𐤍 𐤌𐤍𐤌 𐤊 𐤀𐤉 𐤔𐤌 𐤁𐤍 𐤌𐤍𐤌 𐤅𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤔𐤀 𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤇𐤋𐤕 𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁𐤉 𐤅𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤏𐤌 | ʾL YBQŠ BN MNM K ʾY ŠM BN MNM WʾL YŠʾ ʾYT ḤLT MŠKBY WʾL YʿM | -ʾal yebaqqéš bin(n)ū mīnumma kī ʾayy[78] śōmū bin(n)ū mīnumma weʾal yiššōʾ[82] ʾiyyōt[83] ḥallot miškobiya weʾal yaʿm- | may he not search in it after anything because nothing whatsoever has been placed into it. And may he not move the coffin of my resting-place, nor carry me |
| 6 | 𐤎𐤍 𐤁𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤆 𐤏𐤋𐤕 𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤔𐤍𐤉 𐤀𐤐 𐤀𐤌 𐤀𐤃𐤌𐤌 𐤉𐤃𐤁𐤓𐤍𐤊 𐤀𐤋 𐤕𐤔𐤌𐤏 𐤁𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤊 𐤊𐤋 𐤌𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 𐤅 | SN BMŠKB Z ʿLT MŠKB ŠNY ʾP ʾM ʾDMM YDBRNK ʾL TŠMʿ BDNM K KL MMLKT W | -sénī bimiškob zè ʿalōt miškob šénīy ʾap ʾimʾiyyōt[83] ʾadōmīm[81] yedabberūnakā ʾal tišmaʿ baddanōm kakull[81] mamlokūt we- | away from this resting-place to another resting-place. Also if men talk to you do not listen to their chatter. For every king and |
| 7 | 𐤊𐤋 𐤀𐤃𐤌 𐤀𐤔 𐤉𐤐𐤕𐤇 𐤏𐤋𐤕 𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤆 𐤀𐤌 𐤀𐤔 𐤉𐤔𐤀 𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤇𐤋𐤕 𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁𐤉 𐤀𐤌 𐤀𐤔 𐤉𐤏𐤌𐤎𐤍 𐤁𐤌 | KL ʾDM ʾŠ YPTḤ ʿLT MŠKB Z ʾM ʾŠ YŠʾ ʾYT ḤLT MŠKBY ʾM ʾŠ YʿMSN BM | -kull[81] ʾadōm[81] ʾéš yiptaḥ ʿalōt miškob zè ʾīm ʾéš yiššōʾ[82] ʾiyyōt[83] ḥallot miškobiya ʾīm ʾéš yaʿmusénī bimi- | every (ordinary) man, who will open what is above this resting-place, or will lift up the coffin of my resting-place, or will carry me away from |
| 8 | 𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤆 𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤊𐤍 𐤋𐤌 𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤀𐤕 𐤓𐤐𐤀𐤌 𐤅𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤒𐤁𐤓 𐤁𐤒𐤁𐤓 𐤅𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤊𐤍 𐤋𐤌 𐤁𐤍 𐤅𐤆𐤓𐤏 | ŠKB Z ʾL YKN LM MŠKB ʾT RPʾM WʾL YQBR BQBR WʾL YKN LM BN WZRʿ | -škob zè ʾal yakūn lōm miškob ʾōt[83] rapaʾīm weʾal yiqqabirū[84] nagzaltī[77] biqabr weʾal yakūnū lōm bin wezarʿ | this resting-place, may they not have a resting-place with theRephaïm, may they not be buried in a tomb, and may they not have a son or offspring |
| 9 | 𐤕𐤇𐤕𐤍𐤌 𐤅𐤉𐤎𐤂𐤓𐤍𐤌 𐤄𐤀𐤋𐤍𐤌 𐤄𐤒𐤃𐤔𐤌 𐤀𐤕 𐤌𐤌𐤋𐤊(𐤕) 𐤀𐤃𐤓 𐤀𐤔 𐤌𐤔𐤋 𐤁𐤍𐤌 𐤋𐤒 | TḤTNM WYSGRNM HʾLNM HQDŠM ʾT MMLK(T) ʾDR ʾŠ MŠL BNM LQ | taḥténōm weyasgirūnōm hāʾalōnīm haqqadošīm ʾét mamlokū[t] ʾaddīr ʾéš mōšél bin(n)ōm laq- | after them. And may the sacred gods deliver them to a mighty king who will rule them in order |
| 10 | 𐤑𐤕𐤍𐤌 𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤌𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 𐤀𐤌 𐤀𐤃𐤌 𐤄𐤀 𐤀𐤔 𐤉𐤐𐤕𐤇 𐤏𐤋𐤕 𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤆 𐤀𐤌 𐤀𐤔 𐤉𐤔𐤀 𐤀𐤉𐤕 | ṢTNM ʾYT MMLKT ʾM ʾDM Hʾ ʾŠ YPTḤ ʿLT MŠKB Z ʾM ʾŠ YŠʾ ʾYT | -ṣṣotinōm/laqaṣṣōtinōm ʾiyyōt[83] mamlokūt ʾim ʾadōm[81] hūʾa ʾéš yiptaḥ ʿalōt miškob zè ʾīm ʾéš yiššōʾ[82] ʾiyyōt[83] | to exterminate them, the king or this (ordinary) man who will open what is over this resting-place or will lift up |
| 11 | 𐤇𐤋𐤕 𐤆 𐤅𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤆𐤓𐤏 𐤌𐤌𐤋𐤕 𐤄𐤀 𐤀𐤌 𐤀𐤃𐤌𐤌 𐤄𐤌𐤕 𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤊𐤍 𐤋𐤌 𐤔𐤓𐤔 𐤋𐤌𐤈 𐤅 | ḤLT Z WʾYT ZRʿ MMLT Hʾ ʾM ʾDMM HMT ʾL YKN LM ŠRŠ LMṬ W | ḥallot zè weʾiyat zarʿ mamlo[kū]t hūʾa ʾim ʾadōmīm[81] humatu ʾal yakūnū lōm šurš lamaṭṭō we- | this coffin, and (also) the offspring of this king or of those (ordinary) men. They shall not have root below or |
| 12 | 𐤐𐤓 𐤋𐤌𐤏𐤋 𐤅𐤕𐤀𐤓 𐤁𐤇𐤉𐤌 𐤕𐤇𐤕 𐤔𐤌𐤔 𐤊 𐤀𐤍𐤊 𐤍𐤇𐤍 𐤍𐤂𐤆𐤋𐤕 𐤁𐤋 𐤏𐤕𐤉 𐤁𐤍 𐤌𐤎 | PR LMʿL WTʾR BḤYM TḤT ŠMŠ K ʾNK NḤN NGZLT BL ʿTY BN MS | -parī lamaʿlō wetuʾr baḥayyīm taḥt šamš ka ʾanōkī[79] nāḥān nagzaltī[77] bal[78] ʿittiya bin maso- | fruit above or appearance in the life under the sun. For I who deserve mercy, I was carried away before my time, son of a limited |
| 13 | 𐤊 𐤉𐤌𐤌 𐤀𐤆𐤓𐤌 𐤉𐤕𐤌 𐤁𐤍 𐤀𐤋𐤌𐤕 𐤀𐤍𐤊 𐤊 𐤀𐤍𐤊 𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤁𐤍 | K YMM ʾZRM YTM BN ʾLMT ʾNK K ʾNK ʾŠMNʿZR MLK ṢDNM BN | -k yōmīm ʾazzīrīm yatum bin ʾalmatt[75] ʾanōkī[79] ka ʾanōkī[79] ʾèšmūnʿazar milk ṣīdōnīm bin | number of short days (or: son of a limited number of days I was cut off), I an orphan, the son of a widow. For I, Eshmunazar, king of the Sidonians, son of |
| 14 | 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤕𐤁𐤍𐤕 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤁𐤍 𐤁𐤍 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤅𐤀𐤌𐤉 𐤀𐤌𐤏𐤔𐤕𐤓𐤕 | MLK TBNT MLK ṢDNM BN BN MLK ʾŠMNʿZR MLK ṢDNM WʾMY ʾM ʿŠTRT | milk tabnīt milk ṣīdōnīm bin bin milk ʾèšmūnʿazar milk ṣīdōnīm weʾummī[85] ʾamotʿaštart | king Tabnit, king of the Sidonians, grandson of king Eshmunazar, king of the Sidonians, and my mother Amo[t]astart, |
| 15 | 𐤊𐤄𐤍𐤕 𐤏𐤔𐤕𐤓𐤕 𐤓𐤁𐤕𐤍 𐤄𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 𐤁𐤕 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤀𐤌 𐤁𐤍𐤍 𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤁𐤕 | KHNT ʿŠTRT RBTN HMLKT BT MLK ʾŠMNʿZR MLK ṢDNM ʾM BNN ʾYT BT | kōhant ʿaštart rabbotanū hammilkōt[75] bat milk ʾèšmūnʿazar milk ṣīdōnīm ʾ[š] banīnū ʾiyyōt[83] bīté | priestess of Ashtart, our lady, the queen, daughter of king Eshmunazar, king of the Sidonians, (it is we) who have built the temples |
| 16 | 𐤀𐤋𐤍𐤌 𐤀𐤉𐤕 (𐤁𐤕 𐤏𐤔𐤕𐤓)𐤕 𐤁𐤑𐤃𐤍 𐤀𐤓𐤑 𐤉𐤌 𐤅𐤉𐤔𐤓𐤍 𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤏𐤔𐤕𐤓𐤕 𐤔𐤌𐤌 𐤀𐤃𐤓𐤌 𐤅𐤀𐤍𐤇𐤍 | ʾLNM ʾYT [BT ʿŠTR]T BṢDN ʾRṢ YM WYŠRN ʾYT ʿŠTRT ŠMM ʾDRM WʾNḤN | ʾalōnīm ʾiyyōt[83] [bīt ʿaštar]t biṣīdōn ʾarṣ yim weyōšibnū ʾiyyōt[83] ʿaštart šamém ʾaddīrim weʾanaḥnū | of the gods, [the temple of Ashtar]t in Sidon, the land of the sea. And we have placed Ashtart (in) the mighty heavens (or: in Shamem-Addirim?). And it is we |
| 17 | 𐤀𐤔 𐤁𐤍𐤍 𐤁𐤕 𐤋𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍 (𐤔)𐤓 𐤒𐤃𐤔 𐤏𐤍 𐤉𐤃𐤋𐤋 𐤁𐤄𐤓 𐤅𐤉𐤔𐤁𐤍𐤉 𐤔𐤌𐤌 𐤀𐤃𐤓𐤌 𐤅𐤀𐤍𐤇𐤍 𐤀𐤔 𐤁𐤍𐤍 𐤁𐤕𐤌 | ʾŠ BNN BT LʾŠMN [Š]R QDŠ ʿN YDLL BHR WYŠBNY ŠMM ʾDRM WʾNḤN ʾŠ BNN BTM | éš banīnū bīt laʾèšmūn [śa]r qudš ʿīn ydll bihar weyōšibnūyū šamém ʾaddīrim weʾanaḥnū ʾéš banīnū bītīm | who have built a temple for Eshmun, the prince of the sanctuary of the source of YDLL in the mountains, and we have placed him (in) the mighty heavens (or: in Shamem-Addirim?). And it is we who have built temples |
| 18 | 𐤋𐤀𐤋𐤍 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤁𐤑𐤃𐤍 𐤀𐤓𐤑 𐤉𐤌 𐤁𐤕 𐤋𐤁𐤏𐤋 𐤑𐤃𐤍 𐤅𐤁𐤕 𐤋𐤏𐤔𐤕𐤓𐤕 𐤔𐤌 𐤁𐤏𐤋 𐤅𐤏𐤃 𐤉𐤕𐤍 𐤋𐤍 𐤀𐤃𐤍 𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤌 | LʾLN ṢDNM BṢDN ʾRṢ YM BT LBʿL ṢDN WBT LʿŠTRT ŠM BʿL WʿD YTN LN ʾDN MLKM | aʾalōné ṣīdōnīm biṣīdōn ʾarṣyim bīt labaʿl ṣīdōn webīt laʿaštart šim baʿl weʿōd yatan lanū ʾadōn milakīm[81] | for the gods of the Sidonians in Sidon, the land of the sea, a temple for Baal of Sidon, and a temple for Ashtart, the Name of Baal. Moreover, the lord of kings gave us |
| 19 | 𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤃𐤀𐤓 𐤅𐤉𐤐𐤉 𐤀𐤓𐤑𐤕 𐤃𐤂𐤍 𐤄𐤀𐤃𐤓𐤕 𐤀𐤔 𐤁𐤔𐤃 𐤔𐤓𐤍 𐤋𐤌𐤃𐤕 𐤏𐤑𐤌𐤕 𐤀𐤔 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤕 𐤅𐤉𐤎𐤐𐤍𐤍𐤌 | ʾYT DʾR WYPY ʾRṢT DGN HʾDRT ʾŠ BŠD ŠRN LMDT ʿṢMT ʾŠ PʿLT WYSPNNM | iyat duʾr weyapay ʾarṣōt dagōn hāʾaddīrōt ʾéš biśadé šarōn lamiddot ʿaṣūmot ʾéš paʿaltī weyasapnūném | Dor and Joppa, the mighty lands of Dagon, which are in the Plain of Sharon, as a reward for the brilliant action I did. And we have annexed them |
| 20 | 𐤏𐤋𐤕 𐤂𐤁𐤋 𐤀𐤓𐤑 𐤋𐤊𐤍𐤍𐤌 𐤋𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤋𐤏𐤋(𐤌) 𐤒𐤍𐤌𐤉 𐤀𐤕 𐤊𐤋 𐤌𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 𐤅𐤊𐤋 𐤀𐤃𐤌 𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤐𐤕𐤇 𐤏𐤋𐤕𐤉 | ʿLT GBL ʾRṢ LKNNM LṢDNM LʿL[M] QNMY ʾT KL MMLKT WKL ʾDM ʾL YPTḤ ʿLTY | alōt gubūl(é) ʾarṣlakūniném laṣṣīdōnīm laʿōlo[m] qenummiya ʾatta kull[81] mamlokūt wekull[81] ʾadōm[81] ʾal yiptaḥ ʿalōtiya | to the boundary of the land, so that they would belong to the Sidonians for ever. Whoever you are, king or (ordinary) man, do not open what is above me |
| 21 | 𐤅𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤏𐤓 𐤏𐤋𐤕𐤉 𐤅𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤏𐤌𐤎𐤍 𐤁𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤆 𐤅𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤔𐤀 𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤇𐤋𐤕 𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁𐤉 𐤋𐤌 𐤉𐤎𐤂𐤓𐤍𐤌 | WʾL YʿR ʿLTY WʾL YʿMSN BMŠKB Z WʾL YŠʾ ʾYT ḤLT MŠKBY LM YSGRNM | weʾal yaʿar ʿalōtiya weʾal yaʿmusénī bimiškob zè weʾal yiššōʾ[82] ʾiyyōt[83] ḥallot miškobiya lamā yasgirūnōm | and do not uncover what is above me and do not carry me away from this resting-place and do not lift up the coffin of my resting-place. Otherwise, |
| 22 | 𐤀𐤋𐤍𐤌 𐤄𐤒𐤃𐤔𐤌 𐤀𐤋 𐤅𐤉𐤒𐤑𐤍 𐤄𐤌𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 𐤄𐤀 𐤅𐤄𐤀𐤃𐤌𐤌 𐤄𐤌𐤕 𐤅𐤆𐤓𐤏𐤌 𐤋𐤏𐤋𐤌 | ʾLNM HQDŠM ʾL WYQṢN HMMLKT Hʾ WHʾDMM HMT WZRʿM LʿLM | alōnīm haqqadošīm ʾillè weyeqaṣṣūna hammamlokūt hūʾa wehāʾadōmīm[81] humatu wezarʿōm laʿōlom[78] | the sacred gods will deliver them and cut off this king and those (ordinary) men and their offspring for ever. |
The sarcophagus, along with two others found at the nearby Royal Necropolis of Ayaʿa, are considered the only Egyptian sarcophagi that have ever been found outside of Egypt.[note 7] Marie-Louise Buhl's monographThe late Egyptian anthropoid stone sarcophagi confirmed the sarcophagus as belonging to the26th dynasty,[86] which began in 664 BC and ended with Cambyses II'sconquest of Egypt in 525 BC – many centuries after the last of the knownEgyptian Stelae in the Levant.[87][88] These three Egyptian sarcophagi are considered to have contained the bodies of the same family – i.e. Eshmunazar II and his parentsTabnit andAmoashtart. WhereasTabnit's sarcophagus reemployed a sarcophagus already dedicated on its front with a long Egyptian inscription in the name of an Egyptian general, and Amoashtart's was uninscribed, the sarcophagus used for Eshmunazar II was new and was inscribed with a full-length dedication in Phoenician on a clean surface. According to French archaeologist and epigrapherRené Dussaud, the sarcophagi and their inscriptions may have been ordered by Amoashtart.[89][note 7]
Scholars believe these sarcophagi were originally made in Egypt for members of the Ancient Egyptian elite, but were then transported to Sidon and repurposed for the burial of Sidonian royalty. Gibson and later scholars believe that the sarcophagi were captured as booty by the Sidonians during their participation in Cambyses II's conquest.[91]Herodotus recounts an event in which Cambyses II "ransacked a burial ground atMemphis, where coffins were opened up and the dead bodies they contained were examined", possibly providing the occasion on which the sarcophagi were removed and reappropriated by his Sidonian subjects.[87][92][note 7]
The discovery of the Magharet Abloun hypogeum and of Eshmunazar II's sarcophagus caused a sensation in France, which ledNapoleon III,Emperor of the French, to dispatch a scientific mission to Lebanon headed by Ernest Renan.[93][27][94]
The lid inscription was of great significance upon its discovery; it was the first Phoenician-language inscription to be discovered in Phoenicia proper.[95][note 8] Furthermore, this engraving forms the longest and most detailed Phoenician inscription ever found anywhere up to that point, and is now the second longest extant Phoenician inscription after theKaratepe bilingual.[97][95][96][98]
Due to its length and level of preservation, the inscription offers valuable knowledge about the characteristics of the Phoenician language and, more specifically, of the Tyro-Sidonian dialect. Additionally, the inscription displays notable similarities to texts in other Semitic languages, evident in itsidiomatic expressions, word combinations, and the use of repetition.[25]
The sarcophagi of Tabnit and Eshmunazar may have served as a model for the later sarcophagi of Sidon.[note 7] After Tabnit and Eshmunazar II, sarcophagi continued to be used by Phoenician dignitaries, but with marked stylistic evolutions. Theselocal anthropoid sarcophagi, built from the 5th century BC to the first half of the 4th century BC, continued to be carved in the form of a smooth, shapeless body, but used white marble, and the faces were progressively sculpted in more realisticHellenic styles.[note 7][99][29][100] It is uncertain whether they were imported from Greece or produced locally.[29][99] This type ofPhoenician sarcophagi has been found in the ruins of Phoenician colonies throughout the Mediterranean.[29][99]
Media related toEshmunazar II sarcophagus at Wikimedia Commons
