Santo Domingo was founded in 1496 by theSpanish Empire and is the oldest continuously inhabitedEuropean settlement in the Americas. It was the first seat of Spanish colonial rule in theNew World, theCaptaincy General of Santo Domingo. Santo Domingo is the site of the first university, cathedral, castle, monastery, and fortress in the New World. The city'sColonial Zone was declared as aWorld Heritage Site byUNESCO.[10][11] Santo Domingo was calledCiudad Trujillo (Spanish pronunciation:[sjuˈðaðtɾuˈxiʝo]), from 1936 to 1961, after the Dominican Republic's dictator,Rafael Trujillo, named the capital after himself. Following his assassination, the city resumed its original designation.
Santo Domingo is thecultural, financial, political, commercial and industrial center of the Dominican Republic, with the vast majority of the country's industries being located within the city. Santo Domingo also serves as the chief seaport of the country. The city's harbor at the mouth of the Ozama River accommodates the largest vessels, and the port handles both heavy passenger- and freight traffic.[12]
Tomb that housed the remains ofChristopher Columbus until 1795 (at the cathedral).
Prior to the arrival ofChristopher Columbus in 1492, the nativeTaíno people populated the island which they calledKiskeya (mother of all lands) andAyiti (the land of the high mountains), and which Columbus later namedHispaniola, including the territory of today'sRepublic of Haiti. At the time, the island's territory consisted of five chiefdoms: Marién, Maguá, Maguana, Jaragua, and Higüey.[13] These were ruled respectively bycaciques (chiefs) Guacanagarix, Guarionex,Caonabo, Bohechío, and Cayacoa.
TheOzama Fortress is one of the surviving sections of the Walls of Santo Domingo, which is recognized by UNESCO as being the oldest military construction of European origin in the Americas.[10]
Dating from 1493, when the Spanish settled on the island, and officially from 5 August 1498, Santo Domingo became the oldest European city in the Americas.Bartholomew Columbus founded the settlement and named it La Nueva Isabela, afterLa Isabela, an earlier settlement in the north named after the Queen of SpainIsabella I.[14] In 1495 it was renamed "Santo Domingo", in honor ofSaint Dominic. Santo Domingo came to be known as the "Gateway to the Caribbean" and the chief town in Hispaniola from then on.[15] Expeditions which led toPonce de León's colonization ofPuerto Rico,Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar's colonization ofCuba,Hernán Cortés'conquest of Mexico, andVasco Núñez de Balboa's sighting of the Pacific Ocean were all launched from Santo Domingo.
Colonial Wall surrounding Santo Domingo, in 1899, Allison V. Armour Expedition
In June 1502,[16] Santo Domingo was destroyed by a major hurricane, and the new GovernorNicolás de Ovando had it rebuilt on a different site on the other side of theOzama River.[17][18] The original layout of the city and a large portion of itsdefensive wall can still be appreciated today throughout the Colonial Zone, declared aWorld Heritage Site byUNESCO.
The first majorslave revolt in the Americas occurred in Santo Domingo during 1521, when enslaved Africans led an uprising on Diego Colombus's sugar plantation. In 1586, the privateerSir Francis Drakecaptured the city and held it for ransom.[20] A report which reached the English government in May 1586 states that from Santo Domingo he took away 1,200 Englishmen, Frenchmen, Flemings, and "Provincials out of prison, besides 800 of the countrey people".[21] Drake's successful capture signaled the decline of Spain's dominion over Hispaniola, which was accentuated in the early 17th century by Spanish policies that resulted in thedepopulation of most of the island outside of the capital. An expedition sent byOliver Cromwell in 1655attacked the city of Santo Domingo, but the English force was repulsed by a smaller force of localmilitias[22][d] and Santo Domingo suffered only 25 dead.[24] In 1697, theTreaty of Ryswick included the acknowledgement by Spain of France's dominion over the Western third of the island, nowHaiti. During the 18th century,privateers from Santo Domingo patrolled theCaribbean, capturing numerous enemymerchantment.[25]
From 1795 to 1822, the city changed hands several times along with the colony it headed. It was ceded to France in 1795. The city was briefly captured by Haitian rebels in 1801, recovered by France in 1802,endured a failed invasion from Haiti in 1805, and was once again reclaimed by Spain in 1809. In 1821, Santo Domingo became the capital of an independent nation called theRepublic of Spanish Haiti after theCriollo bourgeois within the country, led byJosé Núñez de Cáceres, overthrew theSpanish crown. The nation was annexed by Haiti just two months later. The city and the colony lost much of their Spanish-bornpeninsular population as a result of these events which caused a great deal of instability and unrest.[20][26][27]
On 27 February 1844, Santo Domingo was again the capital of a free nation, when it gained its independence from Haiti, led by Dominican nationalistJuan Pablo Duarte. The city was a prize fought over by various political factions over the succeeding decades of instability. In addition, the country had to fight multiple battles with Haiti; theBattle of 19 March,Battle of 30 March,Battle of Las Carreras, andBattle of Beler, are a few of the most prominent encounters, mentioned in the national anthem and with city streets named after them.[28] Dominican victory in these engagements thwarted the advance of the Haitian army towards Santo Domingo during theDominican War of Independence.In 1861, Spain returned to the country, having struck a bargain with Dominican dictatorPedro Santana whereby the latter was granted several honorific titles and privileges, in exchange for annexing the young nation back to Spanish rule. TheDominican Restoration War began in 1863 however, and in 1865 theBourbon QueenIsabella II withdrew her soldiers from the island.Over the next two-thirds of a century Santo Domingo and the Dominican Republic went through many revolutions and power changes. Santo Domingo would experience the first of twoU.S. invasions in 1916 when different leaders fought for presidential power and control of the city. The United States intervened, instituting a military leader,Harry Shepard Knapp. U.S. Marines and Dominicans clashed in Santo Domingo on 24–25 October 1916, resulting in the deaths of two U.S. Marines and three Dominicans.[29]
Destruction of Santo Domingo after the hurricane
The city was struck byhurricane San Zenón in 1930, which caused major damage and killed up to 8,000 people.[30] After its rebuilding, Santo Domingo was known officially as Ciudad Trujillo due to the personality cult imposed by dictatorRafael Leónidas Trujillo, who governed from 1930. Following his assassination in 1961 the city was once again renamed to Santo Domingo.
In 1962,Juan Bosch was elected to the presidency. He was overthrown seven months later, resulting in acivil war in the capital.Francisco Caamaño led theConstitucionalistas fighting to restore democracy. This would lead to the second U.S. invasion in 1965. U.S. troops engaged in heavy fighting in the streets of Santo Domingo against theConstitucionalistas on 15 and 16 June.Newsweek described it this way:
Amid the clatter of automatic weapons, the sharp rattle of .50-caliber guns and the heavy explosions of bazookas and recoilless rifles, the paratroopers of the82nd U.S. Airborne Division blasted their way four city blocks into Caamaño's bastion. Heavy fire from U.S. guns across the Ozama River ringed rebel headquarters on El Conde Street, shattered buildings and started huge fires.
Eventually, the fighting would end on 31 August 1965, with 2,850 Dominicans and 44 American servicemen dead.[31]
The year 1992 marked the 500th anniversary, El Quinto Centenario, of Christopher Columbus'Discovery of the Americas. The Columbus Lighthouse –Faro a Colón – was erected in Santo Domingo in honor of this occasion, with an approximate cost of 400 millionDominican pesos.[32]
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View of Santo Domingo from space, 2010.
Santo Domingo is located on the southern coast of the island ofHispaniola, along the Caribbean Sea, and is the capital of the Dominican Republic. The city sits at the mouth of theOzama River, which divides it into eastern and western sections, with the historic Colonial Zone on the west side. Its geography is characterized by a coastal plain with flat to gently rolling terrain, and the surrounding region includes some low limestone hills. The city has a tropical climate, marked by high humidity and warm temperatures year-round, with a rainy season from May to November. Its coastal location and natural harbor have historically made it an important port and commercial hub in theCaribbean.
TheOzama River flows 148 kilometers (92 miles) before emptying into the Caribbean Sea. Santo Domingo's position on its banks was of great importance to the city's economic development and the growth of trade during colonial times. The Ozama River is where the country's busiest port is located.
The average temperature in Santo Domingo varies little, because thetropicaltrade winds help mitigate the heat and humidity throughout the year. Thanks to these trade winds, Santo Domingo has a borderlinetropical rainforest (KöppenAf)/tropical monsoon climate (Am), as its driest month is very close to 60 millimeters (2.4 in). However, the city seldom experiences the heat that one may expect to find. December through March are the coolest months with warm days with less humidity and cool nights (temperatures of 17 to 19 °C (63 to 66 °F)). July through September are the hottest. Santo Domingo averages 1,445 millimeters (56.9 in) of rain annually. Its driest months are from December through April; however, due to the trade winds and mountains to the southwest, rain is seen even during these months.
Like many other cities in theCaribbean, Santo Domingo is very susceptible to hurricanes.Hurricane Georges caused severe destruction in September 1998. The lowest recorded temperature has been 11.0 °C (51.8 °F) on 5 February 1951 and 7 January 1957 and the highest is 39.5 °C (103.1 °F) on 29 May 2002.[33]
View of the city of Santo Domingo, D.R. by day.View of the city of Santo Domingo, D.R. by night.
Climate data for Santo Domingo (1991–2020, extremes 1909–present)
Many of Santo Domingo's most notable landmarks are located within theZona Colonial district of the city, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1990. The Colonial Zone, bordered by the Río Ozama, also has a collection of early 16th century buildings, including palatial houses and majestic churches that reflect the architectural style of thelate Middle Ages. TheChurch and Convent of los Dominicos is the oldest Catholic building in continuous use in theAmericas, and was the headquarters of thefirst university in the Americas.[10]
On the north end of Calle Las Damas, the restored and expanded Plaza de España is bordered by Las Atarazanas (former naval yard, now a museum) and a number of small shops and restaurants. This area was the first European commercial center in the Americas, and is still a hub of activity today. TheAlcázar de Colón, having once been the colonial palace of theColumbus family – beginning with his son Diego – is now a museum displaying period furniture and decorations. The building was originally built in 1510, and restored to its current appearance in 1952.[citation needed]
A 700 million US dollar investment was made in the Port of the Ozama river adjacent to the Ciudad Colonial aiming to turn Santo Domingo into a port of call for luxury cruise ships and including a privately owned marina. The project is being completed by Sans Soucí Ports S.A.
Puerta del Conde, built between 1543 and 1655, was the main entrance to the colonial fortified city of Santo Domingo
The city proper of Santo Domingo is subdivided into incorporated areas (neighborhoods) calledsectores which could be considered as small urban towns. Allsectores are serviced directly by themunicipal mayor's office.
Sector regions:
Ciudad (city) – applies to the original older parts of town, many of which date back to the colonial times.
Villa (village) – the urban outskirts of both the old city of Santo Domingo and the current (smaller) National District; originally they were separate villages, hence their names.
Santo Domingo is the center of the national government of the Dominican Republic. The President's office and ministries, National Congress, Supreme Court of Justice, and other main government institutions are located in the metropolitan area.
The city is administered by theAyuntamiento del Distrito Nacional (City Hall), which is responsible for municipal functions.[37] The current mayor of Santo Domingo is Carolina Mejía de Garrigó.
The "Policía Nacional" (National Police) and "Policia Turística" (Tourist Police) (POLITUR) are tasked with enforcing city safety.
Reserve Bank of the Dominican Republic (BanReservas) in Santo Domingo.
The city is the center of economic activity in the Dominican Republic. It is where most of the country's wealth is concentrated and the seat of the national legislature, judicial, and executive government. Many national and international firms have their headquarters or regional offices in Santo Domingo. The city attracts many international firms and franchises, such as Ikea, Goldcorp and Barrick due to its location and economic stability.[38]
The infrastructure is suitable for most business operations. A key element that has helped the city grow and compete globally is the telecommunications infrastructure. Santo Domingo and the Dominican Republic as a whole enjoy a modern and extensive telecommunications system liberalized in the late 1990s which has benefited from extensive foreign investment. This has attracted numerous call centers in recent years. Santo Domingo not only has an excellent telecommunications infrastructure but also a sizeable bilingual population that speaks English.
The city's economic growth can be witnessed in the extensive vertical growth experienced across many of its neighborhoods. The construction boom is reflected in the many high density residential towers, shopping malls, elevated highways, the metro expansion and overall increase in commercial activity.
Santo Domingo has a thriving middle class contrasting with the significant pockets of poverty that remain as challenges for the future. Marginalized slum conditions exist mostly in the northeast quadrant of the city with smaller pockets extending across the city. Areas of extensive development include thePoligono Central, which is bordered by the Avenida John F. Kennedy northward 27 February Avenue south, Avenida Winston Churchill to the west and Avenida Máximo Gómez to the east, and is characterized by its mixed development and its very active nightlife.
Santo Domingo has areas of high development, among them Serralles, Naco, Arroyo Hondo, Piantini, Urb Fernandez, Ens. Julieta, Paraiso, Los Prados, Bella Vista, Sarasota and other sectors, where most of the middle class can be found.
Bella Vista and La Esperilla are currently the fastest growing sectors with large mega -projects. Gazcue belongs to the more traditional southeastern area of the city and is known for its buildings dating from the 1930s to the 1960s.
Theperforming arts are very important in Santo Domingo. The city has its ownsymphonic orchestra, chamber orchestra, opera company, ballet company, folkloric company, andnational theater, including a number of smaller groups. The Plaza of culture is the center of activity, but there are concerts, ballet, folklore, and other performances throughout the city. Casa de Teatro is the gathering place of avant garde artists, actors, and musicians. It stages art and literature exhibitions and offers painting, drama, and dancing courses and monthly contests for poetry, short stories, and other forms of literature.
Santo Domingo is the location of numerous museums, many of which are located in theZona Colonial district.[32] In theZona Colonial is theMuseum of Alcázar, in Diego Colon's palace,[40] theMuseum of the Casas Reales, with artefacts of the colonial period and a collection of ancient weapons donated byTrujillo,[41] the Naval Museum of the Atarazanas, in the former naval yards, Museo de la Catedral,Museo Memorial de la Resistencia Dominicana, documenting the struggle for freedom during the regimes of Trujillo andBalaguer, MuseoDuarte, dedicated to the hero of Dominican independence, and the World of Ambar Museum.
Museo del Ámbar
Plaza de la Cultura also houses the city's most important cultural venues, including theTeatro Nacional (National Theater) and various museums; thePalacio Nacional, which houses the Presidency of the Dominican Republic; the Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of Fine Arts), a neoclassical building that is the permanent home of the country's National Symphony Orchestra; and the Boulevard 27 de Febrero, a pedestrian promenade located on the busy Avenida 27 de Febrero, which displays works of art from prominent Dominican artists and sculptors. Another attraction is theCentro Olímpico Juan Pablo Duarte, a sports complex in the center of Santo Domingo. This complex was used during the2003 Pan American Games.
In the Plaza de la Cultura are the Museum of the Dominican Man, with artifacts from the pre-ColumbianTaíno civilization, the National Museum of History and Geography, the Museum of Natural History and the Museum of Modern Art. Other museums include theMuseo Bellapart, a prominent private collection of 19th- and 20th-Century Dominican painting and sculpture and the Museo Prehispanico, a major private collection of pre-ColumbianTaíno art.[42]
Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. There are 59 television stations in Santo Domingo.[43] Santo Domingo has the greatest number of television signals in the country. Additional cable television channels are provided by companies likeAster, Cable TV Dominicana,SKY Dominicana, and Telecable. In Santo Domingo there are 100 different stations in AM frequency and 44 in FM frequency.[citation needed]
The city has various parks, many of which are relatively large. Santo Domingo (D.N) is surrounded by theSanto Domingo Greenbelt. Mirador Norte Park lies in the north of the city, close to Villa Mella and Mirador Sur Park is located in the southwest section of the city. Mirador del Este is located on the East bank of the Ozama river and it is the seat of theColumbus Lighthouse. Independencia Park and Colón Park are located in Zona Colonial. Zoo Parque Zoológico Nacional is home to a range of 82–100 both exotic and native plants and animal species.[44]
There are eighteen universities in Santo Domingo, the highest number of any city in the Dominican Republic. Established in 1538, theUniversidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo (UASD) is the oldest university in the Americas and is also the only public university in the city.[45][46] Santo Domingo holds the nation's highest percentage of residents with a higher education degree.[citation needed]
Santo Domingo has an underground and elevatedrapid transit metro system. It is the most extensive metro in theCaribbean and Central American region by total length and number of stations.[47] TheSanto Domingo Metro is part of a major "National Master Plan" to improve transportation in the city as well as the rest of the nation. The first line was planned to relieve traffic congestion in theMáximo Gómez andHermanas Mirabal Avenue. The second line, which opened in April 2013, is meant to relieve the congestion along theDuarte-Kennedy-Centenario Corridor in the city from west to east. As of August 2013, the metro consists of these two lines. Four more lines are planned to be constructed in the near future, for a total of six. Before the opening of the second line, 30,856,515 passengers rode the Santo Domingo Metro in 2012. According to government figures more than 300,000 people ride the 31 kilometer system on a daily basis.[48]
In 2018, a 5-kilometerTeleférico de Santo Domingo (aerial cable car) was opened to provide service to the poorest areas in the east and north of the metropolitan area, and serve as a feeder for the metro. The cable car is used by more than 12,000 people daily.[49]
Santo Domingo is served by two airports.Aeropuerto Internacional La Isabela, an early 21st century-constructed airport located in the northern section of the city, within kilometers of the city center. It served mostly domestic and charter flight but now has several international flights. The major international airport that serves the city isSanto Domingo Las Americas, which serves North, Central and South America and also Europe.
ThePort of Santo Domingo is located on the Ozama River. Its location at the center of the Caribbean is well suited for flexible itinerary planning and has excellent support, road and airport infrastructure within the Santo Domingo region, which facilitate access and transfers. The port is suitable for both turnaround and transit calls.
The port's renovation is part of a major redevelopment project, aimed at integrating the port area and the Zona Colonial and foster a cruise, yacht, and high-end tourism destination. Supported by legislation approved in 2005, the project, developed by the Sans Souci Group, also includes the development of a new sports marina and a 122-acre (0.49 km2) mixed-leisure real estate development adjacent to the port.
Santo Domingo is the terminus for four of thefive national highways. The city is connected to the southwest of the country by the national highwayDR-2 (Avenida George Washington and Autopista 30 de Mayo), and with the cities of the country's northwest byDR-1 (Expreso Kennedy, Corredor Duarte), which serves as a direct link to the city ofSantiago de los Caballeros.DR-3 (Expreso 27 de Febrero/Autopista de Las Américas) connects Santo Domingo directly to the east of the country, including the cities ofSan Pedro de Macorís,La Romana, and major tourist sites such asPunta Cana andBávaro, and to theSamaná Province (in the northeast) via the Samana Highway. In the city,motoconchos (motorcycle taxis),guaguas/voladoras (low quality public buses), andcarros públicos/conchos (shared taxis) are common modes of transport. The Santo Domingo Metro is the highest quality in the region of the Caribbean and Central America. It is composed of 2 lines that cross the city.
Expreso John F. Kennedy: Thisexpressway crosses the National District from east to west in the north-central part. The Avenue consists of a total of ten lanes, five on each side. The two center lanes of the road are express lanes to facilitate transit. It also has several bypasses and elevated crossings.
Avenida 27 de Febrero
Avenida 27 de Febrero: It is the main avenue to cross the National District from east to west in the central part of Santo Domingo. It starts at the Juan Bosch bridge and crosses the entire city until the roundabout at the Plaza de la Bandera, which extends into the town of Santo Domingo West and ends on the Duarte Highway. The thoroughfare is composed of a total of ten lanes. Five on each side. The four lanes in the center of the avenue are express that facilitate transit in the city from east to west, with several elevated cross streets, overpasses and tunnels. It also has exclusive bus lanes.
Avenida Simón Bolívar: It extends from Independence Park to the junction with the Avenue Winston Churchill. In its entirety, this avenue is composed of two local lanes one-way east- west.
Avenida Independencia: It extends from the intersection with Avenida Gregorio Luperón to Independence Park. The avenue consists of a total of four lanes (two eastbound and two westbound ) from crossing with Av G. Luperon to the intersection of Avenida Italia . From the junction with Av Italy until Independence Park Avenue becomes one-way eastbound and contains only two lanes.
Avenida George Washington
Avenida George Washington: It is colloquially referred as "El Malecón" This is Santo Domingo's Maritime Boulevard, running alongside the Caribbean sea's waterfront. It extends from Palo Hincado Street to the intersection with Abraham Lincoln Avenue; from that point to the Haina River Highway 30 May extends also includes President Billini Walk, which starts in Palo Hincado street and joins the Avenida del Puerto along the western bank of the Ozama River. Throughout its entire length it is composed of four lanes (two on each side). On this Boulevard you will find the most exclusive hotels in the city, several casinos, the mixed business and residential high rise complex Malecón Center, the Obelisk andEugenio María de Hostos' Park. This is also the Boulevard where the Santo Domingo Carnival parade takes place.
Avenida Winston Churchill: It extends from Kennedy Avenue to Avenida 27 de Febrero, from there on, it continues as Avenida Jimenez Moya to reach the Centro de los Heroes and finally the boardwalk. This thoroughfare is distinguished by its date palms that are planted on the sidewalks . Throughout its length the road is composed of six lanes (three on each side) and a large wooded median popularly known as Boulevard de laChurchill ("Churchill's Boulevard") and within this lies the Boulevard of the Stars.
Avenida Abraham Lincoln: extends from Avenida Kennedy to the seawall. The route consists of six lanes (three on each side) and a median suitable for jogging laid with palm trees. It traverses the city's commercial and leisure city center.
Avenida José Ortega y Gasset: It extends from the Paseo de los Reyes Católicos Avenue until 27 de Febrero. The avenue consists of four lanes, two on each side. Along this avenue lies theCentro Olímpico Juan Pablo Duarte athletic complex and theHospital General de la Plaza de la Salud medical complex.
Avenida Tiradentes: It extends from the jetty in the south, through the state's universityUniversidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo. It extends to the north along Avenida 27 de Febrero, John F. Kennedy, and continuing north past the city's baseball stadiumEstadio Quisqueya until it reaches theParque Zoológico Nacional National Zoo.
Avenida Gregorio Luperón: It extends from Kennedy Avenue to Highway 30 May on the western edge of Santo Domingo. The thoroughfare consists of eight lanes, four on each side and a landscaped median. Local attractions located on this strip includes Gallístico Center Herrera Industrial Zone, and the Plaza de la Bandera.
Avenida Máximo Gómez y Báez: The city's main south–north avenue, it extends from the Malecón to the Presidente Peynado bridge. The boulevard consists of four lanes, two on each side. Major buildings and points of interest along this boulevard are: the National Cemetery, Plaza de la Cultura which houses the National Theatre and the Palace of Fine Arts. There are also two universities (UNAPEC and UTESA), as well as the headquarters of the People's Bank and five star hotel "Hotel Barceló Santo Domingo".
Avenida Juan Pablo Duarte: It extends from the intersection of Avenida Paseo and Martyrs of the Catholic Monarchs to Calle Padre Billini in the Colonial Zone . The avenue consists of three lanes on a road north–south direction becomes one lane to enter the Colonial Zone . This avenue is the main commerce route for low-income people throughout the metropolitan area with department stores, restaurants, and shops that offer goods and services at modest prices . In "Duarte" (as popularly known) you can find the New Market, the Enriquillo Park, Duarte Commercial Square and Santo Domingo'sChinatown.
Avenida Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres: Is located on the northern part of Santo Domingo starting at the roundabout Cristo Rey sector and corner with Ortega y Gasset, Máximo Gómez, Arbert Duarte and Thomas avenues, among others; culminating in the sector of Simón Bolívar . This avenue is characterized by many businesses that sell auto parts .
Tigres del Licey, founded in 1907, have won 24 national championships since 1951. It is the most senior national team, winning 11Caribbean Series titles as well.
Leones del Escogido, founded in 1921, are winners of 16 national championships since 1951. It is the third team with the most championships won. The team has 4 titles won in theCaribbean Series.
These two teams are based in theEstadio Quisqueya located in Ensanche La Fe. In 2007 The stadium underwent a rebuilding job which expanded its number of seats and the overall look of the field. The bullpens are now enclosed and out of play. Former president Leonel Fernández also announced in 2009 that there are plans to turn the stadium and the adjacent area into a modern sports complex.
Santo Domingo'sBasketball TournamentSuperior is held in the National District each year, with several teams participating and representing several sectors and social clubs of the city.
Some of the teams participating in the tournament include:
Meinig, D.W. (1986).The Shaping of America: a Geographic Perspective on 500 Years of History. Volume I – Atlantic America, 1492–1800. New Haven: Yale University Press.ISBN0-300-03882-8
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