The present name of the city is believed to have come from its former Greek name ofAmisós (Αμισός) by areinterpretation ofeís Amisón (meaning "to Amisós") andounta (Greek suffix for place names) to[eí]s Am[p]s-únta (Σαμψούντα:Sampsúnta) and then Samsun[4] (pronounced[samsun]).
The early Greek historianHecataeus wrote that Amisos was formerly calledEnete, the place mentioned in Homer'sIliad. In Book II, Homer says that theἐνετοί (Enetoi) inhabitedPaphlagonia on the southern coast of theBlack Sea in the time of theTrojan War (c. 1200 BC). The Paphlagonians are listed among the allies of theTrojans in the war, where their kingPylaemenes and his sonHarpalion perished.[5]Strabo mentioned that the inhabitants had disappeared by his time.[6]
Samsun has also been known asPeiraieos by Athenian settlers and even briefly asPompeiopolis byGnaeus Pompeius Magnus.[7]
The city was calledSimisso by theGenoese. It was during theOttoman Empire, that its present name was written asOttoman Turkish:صامسون (Ṣāmsūn). The city has been known as Samsun since the formation of the Turkish Republic in 1923.
Parts of goose-headed and camel-headedPhrygian pottery vesselsSamsun Archaeology and Ethnographic MuseumPeople from Samsun. National costumes in Ottoman era, 1910s
Paleolithic artifacts found in theTekkeköy Caves can be seen in Samsun Archaeology Museum.
The earliest layer excavated of thehöyük of Dündartepe revealed aChalcolithic settlement. EarlyBronze Age andHittite settlements were also found there[8] and at Tekkeköy.
Samsun (then known asAmisos, Greek Αμισός, alternative spellingAmisus) was settled in about 760–750 BC by Ionians fromMiletus,[9] who established a flourishing trade relationship with the ancient peoples ofAnatolia. The city's ideal combination of fertile ground and shallow waters attracted numerous traders.[10]
Amisus was settled by the IonianMilesians in the 6th century BC,[11] it is believed that there was significant Greek activity along the coast of the Black Sea, although the archaeological evidence for this is very fragmentary.[12] The only archaeological evidence we have as early as the 6th century is a fragment ofWild Goat style Greek pottery, in the Louvre.[13]
The city was captured by the Persians in 550 BC and became part ofCappadocia (satrapy).[7] In the 5th century BC, Amisus became a free state and one of the members of theDelian League led by theAthenians;[14] it was then renamed Peiraeus underPericles.[15] A historical tradition fromTheopompus by way ofStrabo has it that the city was originally colonized by the Greeks by a man namedAthenocles. Starting in the 3rd century BC, the city came under the control of Mithridates I, later founder of theKingdom of Pontus. TheAmisos treasure may have belonged to one of the kings. Tumuli, containing tombs dated between 300 BC and 30 BC, can be seen at Amisos Hill but unfortunately Toraman Tepe was mostly flattened during construction of the 20th century radar base.[16]
The Romans conquered Amisus in 71 BC during theThird Mithridatic War.[17] and Amisus became part ofBithynia et Pontus province. Around 46 BC, during the reign of Julius Caesar, Amisus became the capital of Roman Pontus.[11] From the period of the Second Triumvirate up to Nero, Pontus was ruled by several client kings, as well as one client queen,Pythodorida of Pontus, a granddaughter of Marcus Antonius. From 62 CE it was directly ruled by Roman governors, most famously by Trajan's appointee Pliny.Pliny the Younger's address to theEmperor Trajan in the 1st century CE "By your indulgence, sir, they have the benefit of their own laws," is interpreted byJohn Boyle Orrery to indicate that the freedoms won for those in Pontus by the Romans was not pure freedom and depended on the generosity of the Roman emperor.[18]
The estimated population of the city around 150 AD is between 20,000 and 25,000 people, classifying it as a relatively large city for that time.[19] The city functioned as the commercial capital for the province of Pontus; beating its rivalSinope (now Sinop) due to its position at the head of the trans-Anatolia highway.[14]
Interior of the Protestant Church in SamsunPanorama 1919 Museum in Samsun
Though the roots of the city areHellenistic,[11] it was also one of the centers of an early Christian congregation.[11] Its function as a commercial metropolis in northernAsia Minor was a contributing factor to enable the spread of Christian influence. As a large port city – the commercial capital of Pontus[21] – travel to and from Christian hotbeds like Jerusalem was not uncommon.[22] According toJosephus, there was large Jewishdiaspora in Asia Minor.[23] Given that the earlyevangelist Christians focused on Jewish diaspora communities, and that the Jewish diaspora in Amisus was a geographically accessible group with a mixed heritage group, it is not surprising that Amisus would be an appealing site for evangelist work. The author of1 Peter 1:1 addresses the Jewish diaspora of the province of Pontus, along with four other provinces: "Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, To God's elect, exiles scattered throughout the provinces of Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia." (Peter 1:1) As Amisus would have been the largest commercial port-city in the province, it is believed certain that the spread of Christianity in the region would have begun there.[23] In the 1st centuryPliny the Younger documentsaccounts of Christians in and around the cities of Pontus.[24] His accounts center on his conflicts with the Christians when he served under theEmperor Trajan and describe early Christian communities, his condemnation of their refusal to renounce their religion, but also describes his tolerance for some Christian practices like Christian charitable societies.[25] Many great early Christian figures had connections to Amisus, includingCaesarea Mazaca,Gregory the Illuminator (raised as a Christian from 257 CE when he was brought to Amisus) andBasil the Great (Bishop of the city 330–379 CE).[26]
Christian bishops of Amisus include Antonius, who took part in theCouncil of Chalcedon in 451; Erythraeus, a signatory of the letter that the bishops of Helenopontus wrote to EmperorLeo I the Thracian after the killing of PatriarchProterius of Alexandria; the late 6th-century bishop Florus, venerated as a saint in the Greekmenologion; and Tiberius, who attended theThird Council of Constantinople (680), Leo, theSecond Council of Nicaea (787), and Basilius, theCouncil of Constantinople of 879. The diocese is no longer mentioned in the GreekNotitiae Episcopatuum after the 15th century and thereafter the city was considered part of the see ofAmasea. However, some Greek bishops of the 18th and 19th centuries bore the title of Amisus astitular bishops.[27] In the 13th century theFranciscans had a convent at Amisus, which became aLatin bishopric some time before 1345, when its bishop Paulus was transferred to the recently conquered city ofSmyrna and was replaced by theDominican Benedict, who was followed by an Italian Armenian called Thomas.[28] No longer a residential diocese, it is today listed by theCatholic Church as atitular see.[29]
The Governor's House ("Vali Konağı") in Samsun, TurkeyReplica of the cargo shipSS Bandırma, which carriedAtatürk from Istanbul and arrived in Samsun on 19 May 1919, the date which traditionally marks the beginning of theTurkish War of IndependenceA view of Amisos Hill in Samsun
The Ottomans permanently conquered the town in the weeks following 11 August 1420.[31]
In the later Ottoman period, it became part of theSanjak ofCanik (Turkish:Canik Sancağı), which was at first part of theRûm Eyalet. The land around the town mainly producedtobacco, with its own type being grown in Samsun, the Samsun-Bafra, which the British described as having "small but very aromatic leaves", and commanding a "high price."[32] The town was connected to the railway system in the second half of the 19th century, and tobacco trade boomed. There was a British consulate in the town from 1837 to 1863.[33]
Previously, the last Armenian Zoroastrians, theArewordik, or children of the sun, lived in Samsun.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk established theTurkish national movement against theAllies in Samsun on May 19, 1919, the date which traditionally marks the beginning of theTurkish War of Independence. Atatürk, appointed by the Ottoman government as Inspector of theNinth Army Troops Inspectorate of the Empire in easternAnatolia, left Constantinople aboard the now-famousSS Bandırma on May 16 for Samsun. Instead of obeying the orders of the Ottoman government, then under the control of the occupying Allies, he and a number of colleagues declared the beginning of the Turkish national movement. The Allies claimed that the Greek population of Samsun was subject looting by Turkish irregular groups, as noted by representatives of the AmericanNear East Relief, an Allied organization.[34] The Turkish National Movement became alarmed due to the presence of Greek warships in the vicinity of Samsun and undertook thedeportation which entailed the deportation of 21,000 local Greeks to the interior of Anatolia.[35] By 1920, Samsun's population totaled about 36,000, though this figure declined due to the impacts of war and deportations.
Later, in early June 1922, the city wasbombarded by the Allied navy, consisting of American and Greek warships. The Allied bombardment against the Turks was a strategic failure. Following Turkey's victory, the Greek population left for Greece after the 1923Population Exchange founding villages including Nea Sampsounda inPreveza,Greece.
After the establishment of the Republic, Samsun was declared a province with five districtsBafra,Çarşamba,Havza,Terme andVezirköprü.[36] Samsun added additional districts in later years. In 1928,Ladik was established as a district. In 1934, district wasKavak was established followed byAlaçam in 1944 which brought the number of districts inSamsun Province to eight.[37][38][39] With the law number 3392 adopted on 19 June 1983Salıpazarı,Asarcık,Ondokuzmayıs andTekkeköy districts were established.[40] With the law number 3644 adopted on 9 May 1990,Ayvacık andYakakent two more districts were established.[41] Samsun entered into a period of economic and population recovery in the years after the establishment of the Republic and quickly restored its status as a vitalBlack Sea port for Turkey.[citation needed]
Reconstruction of Samsun began quickly after the establishment of theRepublic of Turkey. In 1929, the region's first electric power plant began operations. Railway access to the city was established in the early 1950s with service toSivas andAnkara. Major investments in the regions road network were made beginning in the 1960s.[42][43][44] In 1975, per law No. 1873,Ondokuz Mayıs University was established in neighboringAtakum. The construction of the university was a major development to the region, bringing a highly regarded and well-funded educational institution and state hospital to Samsun. The region was connect by air in 1998 with the construction ofSamsun-Çarşamba Airport 23 km east of the city center. The airport is primarily serviced byTurkish Airlines with service toIstanbul Airport andAnkara Esenboğa Airport but also has international service toGermany andIraq. In 2008, the Metropolitan Municipality opened the 36.5 kmSamsun Tram network which connectsOndokuz Mayıs University toSamsun 19 Mayıs Stadium.
In 1993, Samsun was established as ametropolitan municipality by decree of the national government inAnkara. The decree further enhanced Samsun's status as one of Turkey's largest and most important cities.[45] As Samsun grew, as did its environs. Neighboring Atakum, a suburb to the west of the city center was established in 2008 with the merger of Atakent, Kurupelit, Altınkum, Çatalçam and Taflan towns into one municipality.Atakum in recent years has become a bedroom community to Samsun and home to much of the region's professional class.
Multiple other large developments have further established Samsun as a major urban center. In 2013, Piazza Samsun a 160 store shopping mall, the largest in the Central Black Sea region, opened in the city center. The opening of the mall was followed by the construction of 115 m tallSheraton Hotel Samsun. Now the second tallest building in the region, the hotel at the time was the first building in Samsun's history to stand more than 100 m. In 2017,Samsunspor opened a new 30,000 person stadium inTekkeköy.Gökdelen Towers is now the tallest building in the Samsun region and representative of a recent trend towards high-rise residential housing.
Under the leadership of Metropolitan MayorMustafa Demir, the Samsun regional government has undertaken several major transportation and housing development projects in the city center. Projects include the restoration of the Mert River, the construction of the new National Garden, the restoration of Tarihi Şifa Hamamı and the construction ofSamsun Saathane Square.[46]
Samsun is a long city which extends along the coast between two river deltas which jut into theBlack Sea. It is located at the end of an ancient route fromCappadocia: theAmisos of antiquity lay on the headland northwest of the modern city center.
The city is growing fast: land has been reclaimed from the sea and many more apartment blocks and shopping malls are currently being built. Industry is tending to move (or be moved) east, further away from the city center and towards the airport.
To Samsun's west, lies theKızılırmak ("Red River", theHalys of antiquity), one of the longest rivers inAnatolia and its fertile delta. To the east, lie theYeşilırmak ("Green River", theIris of antiquity) and its delta. TheRiver Mert reaches the sea at the city.
Samsun has ahumid subtropical climate (Köppen:Cfa,Trewartha: Cf), typical for the region, but Samsun is nevertheless drier during summer and milder during winter than most of the southern Black Sea coast.
Summers are warm, the average maximum temperature is around 27 °C (81 °F) in August. Winters are cool to mild and wet, the lowest average minimum temperature is around 4 °C (39 °F) in January.
Precipitation is heaviest in late autumn and early winter. Snow sometimes occurs between the months of December and March, but temperatures below the freezing point rarely last more than a couple of days.
The water temperature is generally mild, fluctuating between 8–20 °C (46–68 °F) throughout the year.
Climate data for Samsun (1991–2020, extremes 1929–2023)
Historical building of the Culture and Tourism Directorate
During theTanzimat period and the subsequent wars, Ottoman Muslims were exiled from theBalkans[50] andCircassianswere expelled from theCaucasus region.[51] Many of the present inhabitants trace their origins from further west or east on the Black Sea coast. The overwhelming majority of people areMuslim. Due to depressed economic conditions, Samsun saw slow but gradual population growth until 1990. Beginning with the economic liberalization Turkey, the city's population began to rapidly increase. In 1990, the city reported a population of 322,982. That figure grew to 388,509 by 2000, 461,640 in 2008, to 511,601 in 2015. In 2020, the city had an estimated population of 710,000.[52]
Samsun holds an important historical role in the political development of theRepublic of Turkey. The city is where the first branch of the Free Republican Party and the first provincial branch of the Democrat Party were opened. For that reason, the city occupies an important place in the history of politics in Turkey. Samsun has traditionally voted for right-wing and nationalistic parties both in local and national elections. In this respect, in Samsun, which is described as the "vote depot of the right". Until the 2018, nearly 80% of the populace voted for right-wing parties while the membership rate to political parties is around 20%.[53][54] The majority of the deputies have been from the right in all general elections since 1950. Only in 1989 and 1994 did a candidate from a left-wing party, Muzaffer Önder was elected mayor.
The city's political view has been changed dramatically at 2002 general elections. The city was governed by Republican People's Party for long years, but Justice and Development Party took it at 2002 elections and did not lose at this city since then.
Lignite supplied free by the city council and central government in 2024
Air pollution is a problem in some parts of the city, especially in winter when freecoal is supplied topoor families by the government.NOx levels from traffic on Yüzüncüyıl Boulevard are among the highest in the country.[59]
Samsun like manyOttoman Empire cities was composed of stone mosques, baths, markets and government buildings while the residential vernacular was almost exclusively wood. The city was populated with wooden konak style homes with more elaborateyali (residence) style homes for the wealthy. Beginning in the 1950s as the city's population grew many of these older wooden structures burned down or torn down and replaced with concrete frame apartment buildings which are now the predominant form of construction in the city center. The city's explosive population growth outpaced its ability to formally build housing for its new residents leading to the construction of vast areas ofgecekondu on the city's suburban periphery. As the region has modernized, the Turkish government has made a full force effort to replacegecekondu with formally designed and built housing.TOKİ, the state agency tasked with housing development has invested heavily in Samsun, building several large social housing developments for the city's growing population.
Samsun's tallest building isGökdelen Towers Tower 1 at 115 m followed by theSheraton Hotel Samsun at 115 m. In recent years dozens of mid-rise residential and commercial buildings have come to populate the city's formerly low-rise skyline.
Long distance buses the bus station is outside the city centre, but most bus companies provide a free transfer there if you have a ticket. Passenger and freight trains run toSivas viaAmasya. The train station is in the city center. Freight trains are taken by ferry to railways atKavkaz in Russia, and will later see service to the port of Varna in Bulgaria and Poti in Georgia.[61]
TheSamsun Tram operates between the eastern district ofTekkeköy andOndokuz Mayıs University. There is a plan to run electrically poweredbus rapid transit between the railway station andTekkekoy. Some city buses are electric.Dolmuş, the routes are numbered 1 to 4 and each route has different color minibuses. The 320 m (1,050 ft) longSamsun Amisos Hill Gondola serves from Batıpark the archaeological area on the Amisos Hill, where ancient tombs intumuli were discovered.
Samsun-Çarşamba Airport is 23 km (14 mi) east of the city center. It is possible to reach the airport by Havas service buses: they depart from the coach park close to Kultur Sarayi in the city center.[62] Horse-drawn carriages, (Turkish: fayton) run along the seafront. There was automated bike rental along the seafront, but it is not currently operational.
Samsun is a port city. In the early 20th century, theCentral Bank of the Republic of Turkey funded the building of a harbor. Before the building of the harbor, ships had to anchor to deliver goods, approximately 1 mile or more from shore. Trade and transportation was focused around a road to and fromSivas.[65] The privately operated port fronting the city centre handles freight, includingRORO ferries toNovorossiysk, whereas fishing boats land their catches in a separate harbour slightly further east. A ship building yard is under construction at the eastern city limit. Road and rail freight connections with central Anatolia can be used to send inland both the agricultural produce of the surrounding well rained upon and fertile land, and also imports from overseas.
Donbasanthracite, imported via the Russian ports ofAzov andTaganrog, is said to be illegally exportedUkrainian coal.[66] In 2019 some crew were rescued but 6 died after a ship sank in the Black Sea.[67]
There is a light industrial zone between the city and the airport. The main manufactured products are medical devices and products, furniture (wood is imported across the Black Sea), tobacco products (although tobacco farming is now limited by the government), chemicals and automobile spare parts.
Flour mills import wheat from Ukraine and export some of the flour.
Provincial government and services (e.g. courts, prisons and hospitals) support the surrounding region. Agricultural research establishments support provincial agriculture and food processing.
Piazza SamsunSamsun Bulvar Shopping MallPiazza Samsun
Most of the many new shopping malls are purpose built, but the former tobacco factory in the city center has been converted into a mall. Samsun's largest mall is the Piazza Samsun.
Samsun has one of the longest coastlines of the Black Sea Region and this strip stretches fromCanik until May 19.[68] 90% of this 35 km long coastline consists of fine sandy beaches suitable for swimming, and alternative sports such as surfing, jetskiing andsailing can be practiced besidesswimming. There are a total of 39 beaches in Samsun, with the highest number of beaches in Atakum with 19 of them.[69] After Atakum, Alaçam and Çarşamba come with three beaches each. Bafra, Ilkadım and May 19 each have two beaches, and Canik also has one beach. There are no beaches in Asarcık, Ayvacık, Havza, Kavak and Ladik. As of August 2018, all of the beaches measured by the Environmental Health Department are classified as very clean. In addition, 13 beaches, 10 of which are inAtakum, are awarded theBlue Flag beach.[70]
In Samsun, where activities for winter tourism can be carried out in addition to beach tourism, Akdağ Winter Sports and Ski Center, especially in Ladik, is the most important investment in this area with its 1675 m ski track and 1300 m chair lift, attracting tourists from the surrounding cities.[71][72] Akdağ also stands out as aparagliding,mountaineering and highland tourism center together with Kocadağ; Nebiyan Mountain is visited by mountaineers, and Kunduz Mountains are visited by transhumance.[73][74][75] In addition to natural areas such as Asarağaç Hill, Gölalan Waterfalls and Kabaceviz Waterfall, Çamgölü, Sarıgazel, Vezirköprü nature parks and Çakkır and Hasköy recreation areas have also been brought into tourism in recent years.[76][77][78][79][80] TheÇarşamba Plain and the Galeriç Floodplain, especially theKızılırmak Delta is frequently visited by bird watchers.[81][82]May 25 Thermal Tourism Center in Havza, which has been given the status of a tourism center, is the most important health tourism point in Samsun, and the thermal springs in Havza and Ladik are also among the tourism centers of the city.[83] The waters coming out of the hot springs, which are visited by 200 thousand people a year, have been used in the treatment of diseases such as rheumatic diseases, gynecological diseases, nervous diseases, joint diseases and calcification for two thousand years.[84][85]
Atatürk Kültür Sarayı (AKM – Palace of Culture). Concerts and other performances are held at the Kultur Sarayi, which is shaped much like a ski jump. "Samsun State Opera and Ballet" performs in The Atatürk Culture Center. Founded in 2009 it is one of the six state opera houses in Turkey. The Samsun Opera have performedDie Entführung (W. A. Mozart) in the annual Istanbul Opera Festival. In collaboration with The Pekin Opera, The Samsun Opera performed Puccini'sMadama Butterfly in theAspendos International Opera and Ballet Festival in 2012. Other performances includeLa bohème, La traviata, Don Quijote, Giselle. The current musical director is Lorenzo Castriota Skanderbeg.
Archaeological and Atatürk Museum. The archaeological part of the museum displays ancient artifacts found in the Samsun area, including theAmisos treasure. The Atatürk section includes photographs of his life and some personal belongings.
Atatürk (Gazi) Museum. It houses Atatürk's bedroom, his study and conference room as well as some personal belongings.
There are two universities in Samsun: the state runOndokuz Mayıs University and the private sectorSamsun University. There is also a police training college[87] and many small private colleges.
Statue ofAtatürk by the Austrian sculptor Heinrich Krippel in Samsun's city centerSamsun Opera and Ballet Hall
Parks
Batı Park (West Park) is a large park on land reclaimed from the sea
Doğu Park (East Park)
Atatürk Park contains hisstatue by Austrian sculptorHeinrich Krippel, which was completed in 1931. The statue was depicted on theobverse of the Turkish 100,000lira banknotes of 1991–2001.[88]
There are several army bases in the city (Esentepe Kışlası, Gökberk Kışlası, 19 Mayis Kışlası and others). Should they become surplus to military requirements in future, for example due to reducedconscription in Turkey, it is currently unclear whether they would becomeurban open space or be further built on.
Football is the most popular sport: in the older districts above the city center children often kick balls around in the evenings in the smallest streets. The city's main club isSamsunspor, which plays its games at theSamsun 19 Mayıs Stadium.
Basketball, volleyball, tennis, swimming,cable skiing (in summer), horse riding, go karting, paintballing, martial arts and many other sports are played. Cycling and jogging are only common along the sea front, where recreational fishing is also popular.
^Homer,Iliad;online version at classics.mit.edu, accessed on 2009-08-18. Book II: "The Paphlagonians were commanded by stout-hearted Pylaemanes from Enetae, where the mules run wild in herds. These were they that heldCytorus and the country roundSesamus, with the cities by the riverParthenius,Cromna,Aegialus, and loftyErithini."
^Strab. 12.3 "Tieium is a town that has nothing worthy of mention except that Philetaerus, the founder of the family of Attalic Kings, was from there. Then comes the Parthenius River, which flows through flowery districts and on this account came by its name; it has its sources in Paphlagonia itself. And then comes Paphlagonia and the Eneti. Writers question whom the poet means by 'the Eneti,' when he says, 'And the rugged heart of Pylaemenes led the Paphlagonians, from the land of the Eneti, whence the breed of wild mules; for at the present time, they say, there are no Eneti to be seen in Paphlagonia, though some say that there is a village on the Aegialus ten schoeni distant from Amastris.' But Zenodotus writes 'from Enete,' and says that Homer clearly indicates the Amisus of today. And others say that a tribe called Eneti, bordering on the Cappadocians, made an expedition with the Cimmerians and then were driven out to the Adriatic Sea. But the thing upon which there is general agreement is, that the Eneti, to whom Pylaemenes belonged, were the most notable tribe of the Paphlagonians, and that, furthermore, these made the expedition with him in very great numbers, but, losing their leader, crossed over to Thrace after the capture of Troy, and on their wanderings went to the Enetian country, as it is now called. According to some writers, Antenor and his children took part in this expedition and settled at the recess of the Adriatic, as mentioned by me in my account of Italy. It is therefore reasonable to suppose that it was on this account that the Eneti disappeared and are not to be seen in Paphlagonia."
^Cohen, Getzel M. (1995). "The Hellenistic Settlements in Europe, the Islands, and Asia Minor". Berkeley and Los Angeles: California: University of California Press. p. 384.
^abcdWilson, M. W. "Cities of God in Northern Asia Minor: Using Stark's Social Theories to Reconstruct Peter's Communities". Verbum et Ecclesia 32 (1). p. 3.
^Topalidis, S. "Formation of the First Greek Settlements in the Pontos". Pontos World. Pontosworld.com. Retrieved 11 March 2015.
^Tsetskhladze, G.R. (1998 ) "The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea Area: Historical Interpretation of Archaeology". Stuttgart: F. Steiner. p. 19.;Louvre pageArchived 23 May 2015 at theWayback Machine
^abWilson, M. W. "Cities of God in Northern Asia Minor: Using Stark's Social Theories to Reconstruct Peter's Communities". Verbum et Ecclesia 32 (1). p. 4.
^Jones, A.H.M (1937). "The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces". Oxford: The Clarendon Press. p. 149.
^Orrery, J. B. (1752). "The Letters of Pliny the Younger: With Observations on Each Letter; and an Essay on Pliny's Life, Addressed to Charles Lord Boyle". The 3rd ed. London: Printed by James Bettenham, for Paul Vaillant. p. 407.
^Mitchell, S. (1995). "Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor". Journal of Roman Studies, 85. pp. 301–302.
^Giftopoulou Sofia (17 March 2003)."Amisos (Byzantium)".Encyclopaedia of the Hellenic World, Asia Minor. Translated by Koutras Nikolaos.Archived from the original on 7 December 2013. Retrieved7 December 2013.
^Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies. (2013). "Roads to Pontus, Royal and Roman."The Journal of Hellenic Studies (Vol. 21). London: Forgotten Books. (Original work published pre-1945, year unknown) p. 105-6.
^Wilson, M. W. "Cities of God in Northern Asia Minor: Using Stark's Social Theories to Reconstruct Peter's Communities".Verbum et Ecclesia 32 (1). p. 2.
^abSchalit, A. "Asia Minor."Encyclopedia Judaica. Accessed 11 March 2015.
^"Pliny and Trajan on the Christians." Pliny and Trajan on the Christians. Accessed 7 April 2015.
^Alikin, V. A. (2010). 'Chapter 7.' InThe Earliest History of the Christian Gathering: Origin, Development and Content of the Christian Gathering in the First to Third Centuries. Leiden: Brill. p. 270.
^Wilson, M. W. "Cities of God in Northern Asia Minor: Using Stark's Social Theories to Reconstruct Peter's Communities". Verbum et Ecclesia 32 (1). p. 7.
^Arslan, Ali (2006). "The Political Structure of Samsun on the Basis of Local Election Results". In Yılmaz, Cevdet (ed.).Geçmişten geleceğe Samsun [From Past to Future Samsun] (in Turkish). Vol. 1. Samsun Metropolitan Municipality Culture Publications. pp. 715–734.ISBN9759229617.
^"Executive Summary: Improving air quality and reducing health costs through renewable energy in Turkey – Assessing the co-benefits of decarbonising the power sector".COBENEFITS Study Turkey(PDF) (Report).
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