Sampradaya (/səmpɾəd̪ɑjə/,Sanskrit:सम्प्रदाय;IAST:Saṃpradāya), inIndian-origin religions, namelyHinduism,Buddhism,Jainism, andSikhism, can be translated as 'tradition', 'spiritual lineage', 'sect', or 'religious system'.[1][note 1] To ensure continuity andtransmission of dharma, varioussampradayas have theGuru-shishya parampara in which aparampara or lineage of successivegurus (masters) andshishyas (disciples) serves as a spiritual channel and provides a reliable network of relationships that lends stability to a religious identity.[1]Shramana is vedic term for seeker or shishya. Identification with and followership ofsampradayas is not static, assampradayas allows flexibility where one can leave onesampradaya and enter another or practicereligious syncretism by simultaneously following more than onesampradaya.Samparda is aPunjabi language term, used in Sikhism, forsampradayas.
Sampradayas are living traditions of both teaching and practice within a specific religious-spiritual tradition. They are generally composed of a monastic order within a specificguru lineage, with ideas developed and transmitted, redefined and reviewed by each successive generation of followers.[2] A particularguru lineage is calledparampara. By receivingdiksha (initiation) into theparampara of a living guru, one belongs to its propersampradaya.
To ensure continuity throughdharma transmission, various sampradayas ensure continuity through Guru-shishya parampara where Guru teaches shishyas ingurukula,matha,akhara, andviharas. Buddhism also haslineage of gurus.Tibetan Buddhism has lineage ofLamas who teach ingompas andstupas.
Sampradaya is a body of practice, views and attitudes, which are transmitted, redefined and reviewed by each successive generation of followers. Participation insampradaya forces continuity with the past, ortradition, but at the same time provides a platform for change from within the community of practitioners of this particular traditional group.[1]
A particularguru lineage in guru-shishya tradition is calledparampara, and may have its ownakharas andgurukulas. By receivingdiksha (initiation) into theparampara of a living guru, one belongs to its propersampradaya.[1] One cannot become a member bybirth, as is the case withgotra, a seminal, or hereditary,dynasty.
Membership in asampradaya not only lends a level of authority to one's claims on truth inHindu traditional context, but also allows one to make those claims in the first place. An often quoted verse from thePadma Purana states:
Mantras which are not received insampradaya are considered fruitless.[1][note 2]
And another verse states:
Unless one is initiated by a bona-fide spiritual master in the disciplic succession, the mantra he might have received is without any effect.[1][note 3]
As Wright and Wright put it,
If one cannot prove natal legitimacy, one may be cast out as a bastard. The same social standard applies to religious organizations. If a religious group cannot prove its descent from one of the recognised traditions, it risks being dismissed as illegitimate.[3]
Nevertheless, there are also examples of teachers who were not initiated into a sampradaya,Ramana Maharshi being a well-known example.[4][web 1] A sannyasin belonging to theSringeri Sharada Peetham once tried to persuade Ramana to be initiated into sannyasa, but Ramana refused.[4]
Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has been categorized intoāstika andnāstika schools of thought.[5]
Āstika and nāstika concept inHindu,Buddhist andJain scriptures defineAstika as those sampradayas which believe in the existence of Atman (Self) and those who accept supremacy ofvedas,Nastika being those who deny there is any "Self" in human beings or do not hold vedas as supreme. In modern context,Astika are also defined astheists andNastika asatheist. In Indian origin religions, even atheism is considered acceptable, especially under the concept ofSarva Dharma Sama Bhava. The concept of acceptable or validDharma excludes theMleccha (impure) who are considered without the purity of ethics and code of conduct calledyamas andniyama.
Sampradayas of Indian-origin religions have their ownDarshana or philosophy,[6] encompassing world views and teachings.[7] Six Astika or orthodox sampradayas which believe in supremacy of veda are calledshad-darśana (lit. six system), namelySankhya,Yoga,Nyaya,Vaisheshika,Mimamsa andVedanta.[8]
Astika or orthodox sampradayas or schools of Indian philosophy have been calledṣaḍdarśana ("six systems"). This scheme was created between the 12th and 16th centuries byVedantins.[9]: 2–3 It was then adopted by the early WesternIndologists, and pervades modern understandings of Indian philosophy.[9]: 4–5 Each of six āstika (orthodox) schools of thought is called adarśana, and each darśana accepts the Vedas as authority. Each astika darsana also accepts the premise thatAtman (soul, eternal self) exists.[10][11] Theāstika schools of philosophy are:
Nastika or hetrodox sampradayas do not accept the authority of the Vedas are nāstika philosophies, of which fournāstika (heterodox) schools are prominent:[12]
Some are syncretic in nature which might adopt mixture of concepts from orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy such as realism of the Nyāya, naturalism of Vaiśeṣika, monism and knowledge of Self (Atman) as essential to liberation of Advaita, self-discipline of Yoga, asceticism and elements of theistic ideas. Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions.
Hindus subscribe to a diversity of ideas onspirituality and traditions, but have no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to bepolytheistic,pantheistic,monotheistic,monistic,agnostic,atheistic orhumanist.[19][20][21]
Hinduism is subdivided into a number of major sampradayas. Of the historical division into sixdarsanas (philosophies), two schools,Vedanta andYoga, are currently the most prominent.[22] Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents areVaishnavism (Vishnu),Shaivism (Shiva),Shaktism (Shakti) andSmartism (five deities treated as same).[23][24][25] These deity-centered denominations feature a synthesis of variousphilosophies such as Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta, as well as shared spiritual concepts such asmoksha,dharma,karma,samsara, ethical precepts such asahimsa, texts (Upanishads,Puranas,Mahabharata, Agamas), ritual grammar and rites of passage.[26]
According to the Padma Purāṇa, one of the eighteen main Purāṇas, there are four Vaishnavasampradāyas, which preserve the fruitful mantras:[note 4]
All mantras which have been given (to disciples) not in an authorised Sampradāya are fruitless. Therefore, inKali Yuga, there will be four bona-fide Sampradāyas.[27]
During theKali Yuga these sampradāyas appear in the holy place ofJaganathaPuri, and purify the entireearth.
Each of them were inaugurated by a deity, who appointed heads to these lineages:
| Main Deity | Parampara lineage | Acharya | PrimaryMathas | Linked sampradaya |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lakshmi Narayana | Sri Sampradaya | Ramanuja | Melukote, Srirangam, Vanamamalai, Tirukkurungudi, Kanchipuram, Ahobila,Parakala | Ramanandi Sampradaya |
| Brahma[citation needed] | Madhva Sampradaya | Madhvacharya | Sri Krishna Matha,Madhva Mathas,Gaudiya Math,ISKCON | Gaudiya Vaishnavism |
| Rudra | Rudra Sampradaya | Viṣṇusvāmī/Vallabhacharya | Pushtimarg sect | |
| Four Kumāras | Kumara Sampradaya | Nimbarkacharya | Kathia Baba ka Sthaan, Nimbarkacharya Peeth,Ukhra Mahanta Asthal, Howrah Nimbarka Ashram |
Other major Vaishnav sampradaya are:
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There are three mainShaiva sampradayas known as "Kailasa Parampara" (Lineage fromKailash)-Nandinatha Sampradaya,Adinath Sampradaya andMeykanda Sampradaya.[29]
TheNandinatha Sampradaya traces its beginning to at least 200 BCE. Its founder and first known spiritual preceptor was the Maharshi Nandinatha. Nandinatha is said to have initiated eight disciples (Sanatkumar, Sanakar, Sanadanar, Sananthanar, Shivayogamuni,Patanjali,Vyaghrapada, andTirumular) and sent them to various places to spread the teachings of non-dualisticShaivism all over the world.[29]Saiva Siddhanta Temple ofHawaii identifies itself as principle Matha or monestory of lineage . Spiritual lineage of theNandinatha Sampradaya : Maharishi Nandinath→Tirumular→→→ unknown→Kadaitswami→ Chellappaswami→Siva Yogaswami→Sivaya Subramuniyaswami →Bodhinatha Veylanswami[29][30][31]
TamilShaiva Siddhanta philosophy is known as the descendant from the teaching ofSanatkumara, one of theKumaras.(Sanatkumara→Satyanjana Darshini→Paranjyoti rishi→Meykandar.[32]
| Sampradaya | Gurus | Sect nowadays | PrincipleMathas | Note |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nandinatha Sampradaya[33] | Tirumular | TamilShaiva Siddhanta (Siddha Sampradaya) | Saiva Siddhanta Temple of Hawaii | Tirumantiramis one of the significant holy book along with other saivite text. |
| Meykandar Sampradaya[33][34] | Meykandar | Shaiva Siddhanta | Saiva adheenams inSouth India | trace its origin atSanatkumara |
| Adinath Sampradaya[33] | Matsyendranath,Gorakshanath | Siddha Siddhanta (Nath Sampradaya) | Nisargadatta Maharaj[35] and International Nath Order[36] | Connected withInchegiri branch |
| Trika Sampradaya | DurvasaVasugupta | Kashmir Shaivism | Swami Lakshmanjo Academy[37] and other Kashmir Saivite Mathas | Also known as Ragasya Sampradaya and Trayambaka Sampradaya.[38][39] Starts its gurus atSrikantha,Vasugupta, and Somananda. SometimesDurvasa also included.[39] |
Nandinatha and Meykandar Sampradayas are associated with theShaiva Siddhanta while Adinath Sampradaya is associated withNath Shaivism. Other popular Saivite sampradayas areVeerashaiva Samprdaya,Lingayat Sampradaya andSrouta Sampradaya
Adi Sankara founded fourMaṭhas (Sanskrit:मठ) (monasteries) to preserve and develop his philosophies. One each in the north, south, east and west of the Indian subcontinent, each headed by one of his direct disciples.
According to Nakamura, these mathas contributed to the influence of Shankara, which was "due to institutional factors".[40] The mathas which he built exist until today, and preserve the teachings and influence of Shankara, "while the writings of other scholars before him came to be forgotten with the passage of time".[41]
The table below gives an overview of the fourAmnaya Mathas founded by Adi Shankara, and their details.[web 2]
| Shishya (lineage) | Direction | Maṭha | Mahāvākya | Veda | Sampradaya |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Padmapāda | East | Govardhana Pīṭhaṃ | Prajñānam brahma (Consciousness is Brahman) | Rig Veda | Bhogavala |
| Sureśvara | South | Sringeri Śārada Pīṭhaṃ | Aham brahmāsmi (I am Brahman) | Yajur Veda | Bhūrivala |
| Hastāmalakācārya | West | Dvāraka Pīṭhaṃ | Tattvamasi (That thou art) | Sama Veda | Kitavala |
| Toṭakācārya | North | Jyotirmaṭha Pīṭhaṃ | Ayamātmā brahma (This Atman is Brahman) | Atharva Veda | Nandavala |
The current heads of the mathas trace their authority back to these figures, and each of the heads of these four mathas takes the title ofShankaracharya ("the learned Shankara") after Adi Sankara.[citation needed]
According to the tradition in Kerala, after Sankara'ssamadhi at Vadakkunnathan Temple, his disciples founded four mathas in Thrissur, namelyNaduvil Madhom, Thekke Madhom, Idayil Madhom and Vadakke Madhom.
Dashanami Sampradaya, "Tradition of Ten Names", is aHindu monastic tradition ofēkadaṇḍi sannyasins (wandering renunciates carrying a single staff)[42][43][44] generally associated with theAdvaita Vedanta tradition. They are distinct in their practices from theSaivaTridaṇḍi sannyāsins or "trident renunciates", who continue to wear thesacred thread after renunciation, whileēkadaṇḍi sannyāsins do not.[note 5]
The Ekadandi Vedāntins aim formoksha as the existence of the self in its natural condition indicated by the destruction of all its specific qualities.[45] Any Hindu, irrespective of class, caste, age or gender can seek sannyāsa as an Ekadandi monk under the Dasanāmi tradition.
The Ekadandis or Dasanāmis had established monasteries in India and Nepal in ancient times.[web 3] After the decline of Buddhism, a section of the Ekadandis were organized byAdi Shankara in the 8th century in India to be associated with fourmaṭhas to provide a base for the growth of Hinduism. However, the association of the Dasanāmis with the Sankaramaṭhas remained nominal. Professor Kiyokazu Okita and IndologistB. N. K. Sharma says, Sannyasis in the lineage ofAdvaita ofAdi Shankara and the Sannyasis in the lineage ofDvaita ofMadhvacharya are all Ēkadaṇḍis.[46]
Kaumaram is a sect of Hindus, especially found in South India and Sri Lanka where LordMurugaKarttikeya is the Supreme Godhead. Lord Muruga is considered superior to the Trimurti. The worshippers of Lord Muruga are called Kaumaras.[citation needed]
Hinduism dominated the island ofJava andSumatra until the late 16th century, when a vast majority of the population converted toIslam. Only theBalinese people who formed a majority on the island ofBali, retained this form of Hinduism over the centuries. Theologically, Balinese or Indonesian Hinduism is closer to Shaivism than to other major sects of Hinduism. The adherents considerAcintya the supreme god, and all other gods as his manifestations.
The term "Agama Hindu Dharma", the endonymousIndonesian name for "Indonesian Hinduism" can also refer to the traditional practices inKalimantan,Sumatra,Sulawesi and other places in Indonesia, where people have started to identify and accept theiragamas as Hinduism or Hindu worship has been revived. The revival of Hinduism in Indonesia has given rise to a national organisation, theParisada Hindu Dharma.
There are 2 Shakta Sampradayas, which revereShakti - the feminine manifestation ofIshvara. They are as follows:
Smarta Sampradaya (स्मार्त), developed around the beginning of theCommon Era, reflects a Hindu synthesis of four philosophical strands:Mimamsa,Advaita,Yoga, andtheism.[47] The Smarta tradition rejects theistic sectarianism,[47] and it is notable for the domestic worship of five shrines with five deities, all treated as equal –Shiva,Vishnu,Surya,Ganesha, andShakti.[48] The Smarta tradition contrasted with the olderShrauta tradition, which was based on elaborate rituals and rites.[49][50] There has been considerable overlap in the ideas and practices of the Smarta tradition with other significant historic movements within Hinduism, namelyShaivism,Vaishnavism, andShaktism.[51][52][53] Even though Smarta sampradaya regardsAdi Shankara as its founder or reformer,[54] advaita sampradaya is not a Shaiva sect, despite the historical links with Shaivism: Advaitins are non-sectarian, and they advocate worship of Shiva and Vishnu equally with that of the other deities of Hinduism, like Sakti, Ganapati and others. Shankara championed that the ultimate reality is impersonal andNirguna (attributeless) and that any symbolic god serves the same equivalent purpose.[55] Inspired by this belief, the Smarta tradition followers, along with the five Hindu gods include a sixth impersonal god in their practice.[55] The tradition has been described by William Jackson as "advaitin, monistic in its outlook".[56]
Shrauta communities are very rare in India, the most well known being the ultra-orthodoxNambudiri Brahmins ofKerala. They follow the "Purva-Mimamsa" (earlier portion of Vedas) in contrast to Vedanta followed by other Brahmins. They place importance on the performance of Vedic Sacrifice (Yajna). The Nambudiri Brahmins are famous for their preservation of the ancientSomayaagam, Agnicayana rituals which have vanished in other parts of India.[citation needed]
The Suryaites or Sauras are followers of a Hindu denomination that started in Vedic tradition, and worshipSurya as the main visible form of theSaguna Brahman. The Saura tradition was influential in South Asia, particularly in the west, north and other regions, with numerous Surya idols and temples built between 800 and 1000 CE.[57][58] TheKonark Sun Temple was built in mid 13th century.[59] During the iconoclasm of Islamic invasions and Hindu–Muslim wars, the temples dedicated to Sun-god were among those desecrated, images smashed and the resident priests of Saura tradition were killed, states André Wink.[60][61] The Surya tradition of Hinduism declined in the 12th and 13th century CE and today remains as a very small movement except in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh.[citation needed] Sun worship has continued to be a dominant practice in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh in the form ofChhath Puja which is considered the primary festival of importance in these regions.
Ganapatism is a Hindu denomination in which LordGanesha is worshipped as the main form of theSaguna Brahman. This sect was widespread and influential in the past and has remained important inMaharashtra.[citation needed]
The new movements that arose in the 19th to 20th century include:[62]
Buda sampradaya orBuddha sampradāya is a classification based on the observance of Dutch ethnographers of Brahmana caste ofBalinese Hinduism into two: Siwa (Shiva) and Buda (Buddha). The other castes were similarly further sub-classified by these 19th-century and early-20th-century ethnographers based on numerous criteria ranging from profession, endogamy or exogamy or polygamy, and a host of other factors in a manner similar tocastas in Spanish colonies such as Mexico, and caste system studies in British colonies such as India.[64] This concept of Buddha Sampradāya could be applied to all Buddhist communities.
TheJain sampardaya has various sects or schools of thoughts:
Khalsa Panth i.e.Sikhism has various sects.
Akaali Nihangs – Typically viewed as the armed forces of the Sikh Panth.[65] As institutionalised byGuru Gobind Singh, the 10th Guru. Within this order there are the two main ones: Buddha Dal - army of elders, and Tarna Dal - army of youth.[66] Connected to these two are several smaller sub-orders.[66] Buddha Dal holds authority in all matters concerning theAkaali Nihang order - the president of Buddha Dal was previously always also the president of theAkaal Takht,[66] the highest temporal authority of the Sikh Panth.[67] Technically the sect belongs to the Sahibzada (son) of the 10th Guru,Baba Fateh Singh.
Nirmalas – Indic scholars within the Sikh Panth. Traditionally studying a vast array ofIndic and some non-Indic literature,[65] as well as producing texts. They also engage in dialogue and discourse with otherDharmik paths.[65] Claim institutionalization by the 10th Guru also.[66] According to their traditional beliefs, the Nirmala Sikh tradition was founded by Guru Gobind Singh in the late 17th century when he sent five Sikhs to Varanasi (Kansi) to learn Sanskrit and Hindu religious texts.[68][69] Notable Nirmalas includeKavi Santokh Singh (who was also a student of Giaani Samparda), andPundit Tara Singh. This Samparda still exist today.[70]
Sant Samparda - A traditionalKhalsai order, tracing back to the tenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, also known as Bhai Daya Singh Samparda.[71][72] ThisTaksal (school) was founded byBhai Daya Singh, theMukhi of the originalPanj Pyaare, under thehukam(command) ofGuru Gobind Singh in the early 1700s, aiming to pass down the divine knowledge ofNaam andGurbani to the community.[73][74] The word 'Sant' translates to 'saint', an enlightened being who has attained spiritual enlightenment and divine knowledge through union withGod. Many prominent saints have emerged from this Samparda, includingBaba Sahib Singh Bedi,Baba Maharaj Singh, Sant Karam Singh, andSant Isher Singh.[75][76][77]
Udasi – An ascetic order who were traditionally caretakers of Gurdwaras and involved in missionary work.[66] Certain practises of theirs diverge from mainstream Sikh belief although they do not promote this to others.[78] The order was started byBaba Sri Chand, the eldest Sahibzada (son) of the 1st Guru,Guru Nanak.[66] Baba Sri Chand is theirGurdev/Ustadh. Still exist today.
Sevapanthis – Philanthropists, involved in helping others or doing seva[79] - free service without expectation of reward. They are also engaged in scholarly work. The order was first headed byBhai Kahnaiya, a Sikh of the 10th Guru - who famously helped wounded enemy soldiers during war time by providing medical care.[80] Hardly exist today.[81]
Gyaaniyan Samparda – the university ofSikhi, whilst technically not an order, it essentially serves as one.[82] Made up from individuals belonging to all of the above sects. Many branches within this order.[82]
TheDamdami Taksal claims direct lineage from the Giani Samparda,[82] although this is a topic of contention.[83]
Later sects which emerged in Sikhism areNamdhari,Nirankari, andRadha Soami.
Ravidasiya sect combines practices of Sikhism and Hinduism.
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