Sambucus is agenus of between 20 and 30 species offlowering plants in the familyAdoxaceae. The various species are commonly referred to aselder, with the flowers aselderflower, and the fruit aselderberry.
Elders are mostly fast-growingshrubs or smalltrees 3–10 m (9.8–32.8 ft) (rarely to 14 m (46 ft)) tall, with a few species beingherbaceous plants 1–2 m (3 ft 3 in – 6 ft 7 in) tall. The oppositely arrangedleaves arepinnate with 5–9 leaflets (or, rarely, 3 or 11). Each leaf is 5–30 centimetres (2–12 in) long, and the leaflets have serrated margins. They bear large clusters of small white or cream-colouredflowers in late spring or early summer; these are followed by clusters of small berries that are green when immature, ripening black, blue-black, or red (rarely yellow or white).
The genus name comes from theAncient Greek wordσαμβύκη (sambū́kē), an ancient wind instrument, relating to the removal of pith from the twigs to make whistles.[2]
The genus was formerly placed in thehoneysuckle familyCaprifoliaceae, but was reclassified in the moschatel familyAdoxaceae due to genetic and morphological comparisons to plants in the genusAdoxa.[4]
The genus occurs intemperate to subtropical regions of the world. More widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, its Southern Hemisphere occurrence is restricted to parts ofAustralasia andSouth America. Many species are widely cultivated for their ornamental leaves, flowers, and fruit.[7]
Elder commonly grows near farms and homesteads. It is anitrogen-tolerant plant and thus is often found near places oforganic waste disposal. Elders are often grown as ahedgerow plant in Britain since they take very fast, can be bent into shape easily, and grow quite profusely, thus having gained the reputation[according to whom?] of being an "instant hedge". It is not generally affected by soil type orpH level and will grow virtually anywhere sufficientsunlight is available.[citation needed]
The berries are consumed by birds and mammals.[8] In Northern California, elderberries are eaten by migratingband-tailed pigeons. Elders are used as food plants by thelarvae of someLepidoptera species includingbrown-tail,buff ermine,dot moth,emperor moth,engrailed moth,swallow-tailed moth and theV-pug. The crushed foliage and immature fruit have a strong fetid smell.Valley elderberry longhorn beetles in California are very often found around red or blue elderberry bushes. Females lay their eggs on the bark.[9] Strong-scented flowers in wild populations of European elder (S. nigra) attract numerous, minute flowerthrips which may contribute to the transfer of pollen between inflorescences.[10]
Traditional uses ofSambucus involved berries, seeds, leaves, and flowers or componentextracts.[11]Ornamental varieties ofSambucus are grown in gardens for their showy flowers, fruits and lacy foliage which support habitat for wildlife.[12] Of the many native species, three are used as ornamentals:S. canadensis,S. nigra, andS. racemosa.[13]
Some species of the Sambucus genus produce toxic berries, leaves, roots, and stems.[14][8] Leaves, twigs, branches, seeds, roots, flowers, and berries of someSambucus plants producecyanogenic glycosides, which havetoxic properties.[14] Ingesting a sufficient quantity of cyanogenic glycosides from berry juice, flower tea, or beverages made from fresh leaves, branches, and fruit has been shown to causeillness, includingnausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps,diarrhea, and weakness.[15][14][16] In August 1983, a group of 25 people inMonterey County, California, became ill after ingesting elderberry juice pressed from fresh, uncookedS. mexicana berries, leaves, and stems.[16] The concentration of cyanogenic glycosides is higher in tea made from flowers (or leaves) than from the berries.[14][17]
The berries and leaves of the speciesSambucus nigra, spp. canadensis have been shown to lack cyanogenic glycosides. In a 2021 scientific analysis, commercial elderberry juice made fromSambucus nigra, spp. canadensis in Illinois, USA, had no trace of cyanogenic glycosides.[18] The authors also point out that the 1983 "poisoning" event in California which coincided with consumption ofSambucus cerulea, rather thanSambucus mexicana, was not caused by cyanide.
The seeds ofSambucus racemosa are reported to be poisonous and may cause vomiting or diarrhea.[8]
Raw elderberries are 80% water, 18%carbohydrates, and less than 1% each ofprotein andfat. In a 100-gram (3+1⁄2 oz) amount, elderberries supply 305 kilojoules (73 kcal) offood energy and are a rich source ofvitamin C, providing 43% of theDaily Value (DV). Elderberries also have moderate contents ofvitamin B6 (18% DV) andiron (12% DV), with no other nutrients in significant content.
Sambucus fruit is rich inanthocyanidins[23] that combine to give elderberry juice an intense blue-purple colour that turns reddish on dilution with water.[24]
Elderberry fruit or flowers are used asdietary supplements to prevent or provide relief from minor diseases, such asflu, colds,constipation, seasonal allergies, inflammation, gut biome improvement,[25] weight loss, and other conditions, served as a tea, extract or in acapsule.[15] The use of elderberry supplements increased early in the COVID-19 pandemic.[26] There is insufficient research to establish its effectiveness for such uses, or its safety profile.[15] The raw or unripe fruit ofS. nigra or its extracts may contain a cyanogenic glycoside that is potentially toxic.[26]
Although practitioners oftraditional medicine have used elderberries over centuries,[12] there are no large scale studies that such practices provide benefits. However, there are some smaller studies showing antiviral effects. In one placebo-controlled study of air travellers, Elderberry Extract did not reduce the instance of developing the common cold, but did reduce the duration and intensity of symptoms significantly in the Elderberry group compared to the placebo group.[27][15][28]Further, Elderberry flavonoids bind to H1N1 flu virons, preventing them infecting host cells.[29] Therefore, the historical use in traditional medicine is moderately supported by present science for some viral infections. It has been shown to inhibit replication of SARS-COV-2 (COVID-19) in Vitro.[30]
The pigments are used as colourants in various products,[23] and "elderberry juice color" is listed by the USFood and Drug Administration as allowable in certified organic food products.[23] In Japan, elderberry juice is listed as an approved "natural colour additive" under the Food and Sanitation Law.[31] Fibres can be dyed with elderberry juice (usingalum as amordant) to give a "muted purple" shade.[32][33]
The berry ofS. racemosa can be made intowine.[8] The flowers ofS. nigra are used to produceelderflower cordial.St-Germain, a French liqueur, is made from elderflowers. Hallands Fläder, a Swedishakvavit, is flavoured with elderflowers.
Hollowed elderberry twigs have traditionally been used asspiles to tapmaple trees forsyrup.[34] Additionally, they have been hollowed out and used as flutes, blowguns, and syringes.[35] In addition, the elderberry twigs and fruit are employed in creating dyes for basketry. These stems are dyed a very deep black by soaking them in a wash made from the berry stems of the elderberry.[12]
Thepith of elder has been used bywatchmakers for cleaning tools before intricate work.[36]
Folklore related to elder trees is extensive and can vary according to region.[37] In some traditions, the elder tree is thought to ward off evil and give protection fromwitches, while other beliefs say that witches often congregate under the plant, especially when it is full of fruit.[38] If an elder tree was cut down, a spirit known as theElder Mother would be released and take her revenge.[39] The tree could only safely be cut while chanting a rhyme to the Elder Mother.[40]Romani people believe burning elder wood brings bad luck.[41]
^Niering, William A.; Olmstead, Nancy C. (1985) [1979].The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers, Eastern Region. Knopf. p. 448.ISBN0-394-50432-1.
^abcdSenica, M; Stampar, F; Veberic, R; Mikulic-Petkovsek, M (2016). "The higher the better? Differences in phenolics and cyanogenic glycosides inSambucus nigra leaves, flowers and berries from different altitudes".Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture.97 (8):2623–2632.doi:10.1002/jsfa.8085.PMID27734518.
^abcde"European elder". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. September 2016. Retrieved8 November 2016.
^Barak, V.; Halperin, T.; Kalickman, I. (2001). "The effect of Sambucol, a black elderberry-based, natural product, on the production of human cytokines: I. Inflammatory cytokines".European Cytokine Network.12 (2):290–296.PMID11399518.
^Lyle, Katie Letcher (2010) [2004].The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants, Mushrooms, Fruits, and Nuts: How to Find, Identify, and Cook Them (2nd ed.). Guilford, CN:FalconGuides. p. 92.ISBN978-1-59921-887-8.OCLC560560606.
Eriksson, Torsten; Donoghue, Michael J. (1997). "Phylogenetic Relationships of Sambucus and Adoxa (Adoxoideae, Adoxaceae) Based on Nuclear Ribosomal ITS Sequences and Preliminary Morphological Data".Systematic Botany.22 (3):555–573.Bibcode:1997SysBo..22..555E.doi:10.2307/2419828.JSTOR2419828.
