Kingdom of Saloum Saluum | |
|---|---|
 Saloum ca. 1850 | |
| Status | State from c. 1494-1867 Currently anon-sovereign monarchy withinSenegal |
| Capital | Kahone |
| Common languages |
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| Religion |
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| Government | Absolute monarchy, thenconstitutional monarchy from 2017 – present |
| Maad Saloum | |
• 1494 – c. 1520 | Mbegane Ndour |
• 1935–1969 | Fode N'Gouye Joof |
• 2017–present | Thierno Coumba Daga Ndao |
| History | |
• Mbegane Ndour defeatsElibana, founds the kingdom | c. 1494 |
• Annexation intoFrench West Africa | 1867 |
• 1969 | Death ofMaad Saloum Fode N'Gouye Joof, abolition of the monarchy |
• 2017 | Re-establishment of the monarchy |
TheKingdom of Saloum (Serer:Saluum orSaalum) was aSererkingdom in present-daySenegal and parts ofGambia. The precolonial capital was the city ofKahone. Re-established in 2017, Saloum is now a non-sovereign traditional monarchy within Senegal. Its history, geography and culture is intricately linked with the sister state, theKingdom of Sine, and it is common to refer to them as theSine-Saloum or the Serer Kingdoms.
Serer oral traditions recount that the area was named Saluum/Saloum by theMaad SaloumMbegane Ndour in the later part of the 15th century (c. 1494),[1] named after Saalum Suwareh, themarabout of Mbegan Ndour.[2] Alternatively, the name 'Saluum' could mean 'land of the Luum', an important family in the region.[3]
Portuguese explorers in the 15th century referred to Saloum as the kingdom ofBorçalo, a corruption of the Wolof 'Bor-ba-Saloum' for "King of Saloum" (Maad Saloum).[4]
Saloum and the surrounding region is known for its many ancient burial mounds or "tumuli" (podoom inSerer) containing the graves of kings and others. The kingdom also has numerous mysterious stone circles whose function and history are still debated by scholars, most of which pre-date the formation of the kingdom.[5] TheSerer people who are very diverse, are noted by scholars as one of the oldest inhabitants of theSenegambia region[6][7] who saw the entire region as their home.[8][9] In the 11th century, the Serers ofTakrurwere persecuted for theirSerer religious beliefs by the new Muslim convert and usurper, kingWar Jabi and his Muslim ally forces - resulting in theSerer exodus from Takrur. Those Serers headed south including Saloum - joining their distant Serer relatives. For more on that, seeSerer medieval history.[10][11][12][13]
Fall has advanced the claim that, the first inhabitants of the region, according to oral tradition[which?], were aMande people who immigrated from theWagadu Empire to flee a drought, likely towards the end of the first millennium CE.[14] The princess of Wagadou would marry into the Serer noble families such as the Joof, Njie, etc., giving birth to a Wagadou maternal dynasty in much of Serer country. For more on that, seeJoof family,Teigne, andSerer maternal clans.
BeforeMaad SaloumMbegan Ndour, Saloum existed in some form, but it is unclear what form it took.[15] The area was composed a series of chiefdoms and independent villages, many of which led by SererLamanes and/or part of theJolof Empire's sphere of influence.[16][17] The core of what would become the Kingdom of Saloum was a Lamanic state called Mbey, with the capital atNjop.[18][1][19] The king/chief of Mbey using the Serer noble titleMaad -referred to asMaada Mbey/Maad a Mbey (as inMaad a Sinig andMaad Saloum, titles of the kings of Sine and Saloum respectively).
In the late 15th century, Ali Elibana, aToucouleurmarabout, established himself atNjop and took control of the surrounding salt-producing region, Mbey, mostly populated by the Serer.[15][20] This was a period of profound destabilization and succession disputes in the Jolof Empire, which had extended its hegemony south to theGambia river underBiram Njeme Eler (c.1465–c.1481). While the southern and eastern parts of the region that became Saloum were under the influence of Jolof, Saloum the kingdom was never a part of the empire.[17]
Mbegane Ndour, whose paternal roots were in the region, came to Mbey from Sine likely with the intention of carving out a kingdom for himself.[21] Around the turn of the 16th century, he launched a religious conflict against the Muslim Elibana, strengthened by the purchase of horses and guns from European merchants on the coast. In the legend, after proving unable to overcome him on the battlefield, Ndour transformed into a snake and hid outside Elibana's mosque; when the marabout emerged from his prayers, the snake bit him, and he died. He then fought and defeated Diattara Tambedou, who was either Elibana's successor or a former ally of Ndour's. Tambedou, a MuslimSoninke, was likely a salt merchant. Control over this vital resource underpinned the conflict as much or more than religious differences.[22][23]
Ndour renamed NjopKahone, meaning 'this is the one' in Serer, and made it the capital of a kingdom modeled on his homeland, Sine.[24][25][26] He built up his power by allying with the various smaller powers of the region, including Serer Lamanes,Soninke or Toucouleur marabouts, and local village chiefs, but he only directly controlled Mbey.[27] At some point, he may have served as regent to the underageMaad a Sinig (King of theKingdom of Sine).[21]
After Mbegane Ndour's death he was succeeded by Giran O Ngap, aGuelwar, but his reign was consumed by civil conflict first with local marabouts and finally with Ndour's nephew Latmenge Dielene, who poisoned him and took power. Rather than relying on a balance of alliances like his uncle had done, Latmenge Dielene built a military powerful state with clearly defined provinces run by families loyal to the Maad Saloum. He fought numerous wars to build up the power of the ruling aristocracy and impose central power and tribute on previously independent villages or statelets, including the kingdom ofNiumi.[28]
By 1566, the process of unification and centralization was completed underMaad Saloum Lat Ciloor Bajaan, who extended Saloum's power to the north bank of the Gambia and made theKingdom of Niani pay tribute.[29]Twodistricts ofThe Gambia retain the name Saloum today. A major part of this expansion process was the welcoming of immigrant families fleeing conflict elsewhere in the region, granting them fiefs either to extend control over uninhabited areas or ensure the loyalty of conquered regions. At its height, four major trading ports on the Gambia river fell within Saloum's zone of influence:Barra inNiumi, Iambor inBaddibu,Kaur in Saloum itself, andKassang in Niani.[30]
The most important offices of the state were monopolized by members of theGuelwar clan. But the multiplication of titles and the importance of trade on the Gambia gradually undermined central control.[31]
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As one of the wealthiest and most stable states in the region, the Maad Saloum was able to playFrance andEngland off of each other for centuries to ensure the best terms of trade. In 1785 Saalum Sandene signed a trade treaty with the French, but the upheavals of theFrench Revolution and theNapoleonic Era ensured continued English dominance of the important Saloum-Saloum market. The end of theAtlantic slave trade saw the kingdom's foreign trade limited mostly to foodstuffs, which further increased the power of landowners relative to the monarchy, and pushed theceddo (denoting followers ofSerer religion in this context) warrior class to increasingly prey on their subjects.[32]
In 1857 the French trading post atAlbreda on the Gambia was given to the English in exchange forPortendick, and Saloum was left unable to balance the two colonial powers against each other. Two years later, GovernorLouis Faidherbe led an expedition up theSaloum river and imposed a new treaty on the Maad Saloum.[33]
In 1861, Maba Diakhou Bâ, a Muslim cleric and slave trader,[34] took control of Badibbu, also known as Rip, on Saloum's southern edge. Shortly afterwards, Sambou Oumanneh Touray, Maba disciple defeated and killed the Fara Sabakh and Fara Sandial, joined the two countries together (hence :Sabakh-Sandial) and ruled it.[1]: 18 [35] Maba soon controlled most of Saloum and part ofNiumi.[36] His forces clashed with the French and, despite a defeat, continued to attract new recruits, with the army numbering up to 11,000 fighting men. In 1864 the French recognized him asAlmamy of Baddibu and Saloum, but his growing power threatened to unify Senegambia against them.[37] An alarmed French governorÉmile Pinet-Laprade marched on Saloum at the head of 1,600 regulars, 2,000 cavalry, and 4,000 volunteers and footsoldiers. At theBattle of Pathé Badiane outside of Nioro, however, the marabout forces led byLat Dior drove the French back towardsKaolack.[38]
As well as forcibly converting traditional states and their populations toIslam, Maba Diakhou Bâ sought to abolish the traditional caste system of theSerer states.[37] In 1867, aided by the kings of Cayor and Jolof with their respective armies, he tried to invaded the ultra-conservative SererKingdom of Sine, but was defeated and killed at theBattle of Fandane-Thiouthioune.[38] The Kingdom of Saloum, was the only Senegambian kingdom that came to the aid of its sister Serer kingdom against the Muslim ally forces in that battle.
After Maba's defeat, Saloum was incorporated into the colony ofSenegal. The kings continued to hold their court inKahone, but the city was eclipsed commercially by neighboringKaolack. However, like the Kingdom of Sine, the royal dynasty survived up to 1969, when the lastKing of SaloumFode N'Gouye Joof, and the lastKing of SineMaad a Sinig Mahecor Joof died. After their deaths, both were incorporated into newly independent Senegal.
In 2017, the Serer of Saloum decided to reinstate their monarchy, and Thierno Coumba Daga Ndao was selected from the Guelowar matrilineage to succeed the throne. After a contentious election, he was crowned King on 21 May 2017 at Kahone.[39] He is the current King of Saloum as of 2024, and the maternal uncle of the current King of Sine, Niokhobaye Fatou Diène Diouf,[40] fromthe Royal House of Semou Njekeh Joof.
The core of the Kingdom of Saloum is populated mostly by theSerer, but gradually theWolof immigrants have settled in along with theFulas,Mandinkas, etc.[41][42][5] Unlike the Kingdom of Sine which is more deeply rooted in "Serer-conservatism", such as the preservation ofSerer religion, culture, traditions, etc.,[41][42] Saloum is morecosmopolitan and multi-religious. This explains why some Serer traditionalists who adhere to the tenets of Serer religion are reluctant to afford it the same religious status afforded to Sine as one of thesacred Serer holy sites, in spite of housing many of the Serer sites (seeSerer ancient history).[5]
TheSerer language andWolof are both widely spoken in Saloum. TheCangin languages are also spoken.
Saloum includes flat, swampy tideland areas inland from theSaloum Riverdelta, which allowed for a flourishing industry ofsalt-manufacture. The kingdom exported this highly valuable resource regionally, with Kahone as a major trade center. Thecoubal was a tax in kind on salt levied by the Maad Saloum. He exercised a monopoly on salt sales, and production was restricted to women to prevent rival princes from using the saltpans as a revenue source with which they could challenge the king.[43] Control of Gambia river ports allowed the export of salt east towards theMali Empire.[44] The Saloum river delta was also a major center for the harvesting, preserving, and export of fish, oysters, and shellfish.Niominka traders went up and down the coast, and later Europeans andLançados traded in the many creeks and inlets.[45]
The economic base in the 19th and 20th centuries shifted togroundnut cultivation and trade, exporting large quantities of nuts to Europe.[46]
| |
| Royal titles | |
| Lamane (alsoreligious) | |
| Maad | |
| Maad a Sinig | |
| Maad Saloum | |
| Teigne | |
| Lingeer | |
| Line of succession | |
| Buumi | |
| Thilas | |
| Loul Religious titles | |
| Saltigue | |
The main provinces of Saloum were: Mbey, where the Maad Saloum ruled directly; Joñik centered aroundDjilor; Siñi north of Kahone, ruled by theBar Ngay descended from theNdiaye dynasty of Jolof;[47] Ndukumaan east of Siñi ruled by the Ndao family, formerly the rulers ofNamandirou;[48] Kajmoor and Mandaax along the Gambia river, also ruled by Ndiayes;[49] among other, smaller territories, sometimes ruled by marabouts. The ruling class were ethnically and culturally Serer, part of theGuelowar clan, and were known asceddo who often exploited and raided the population.[50] Vassals included, at various times, Badibu,Niani,Niumi, Sabakh, and Sandial. The powers and prerogatives of local subordinate rulers varied.
The greatJaraaf was the head of the council that elected the Maad Saloum, also known as theBuur in Wolof, and would rule the nation in the event of his death until his successor had been enthroned.[50]Buur-administrators served as governors of villages and provinces on behalf of the king, assisted byFarba who were in charge of enforcing laws and dispensing justice.[51]
