| Salicornia | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Salicornia europaea | |
Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Order: | Caryophyllales |
| Family: | Amaranthaceae |
| Subfamily: | Salicornioideae |
| Genus: | Salicornia L. |
| Species | |
See text | |
Salicornia is agenus ofsucculent,halophytic (salt tolerant)flowering plants in the familyAmaranthaceae that grow insalt marshes, on beaches, and amongmangroves.Salicornia species are native to North America, Europe, central Asia, and southern Africa. Common names for the genus includeglasswort,pickleweed,picklegrass, andmarshsamphire; these common names are also used for some species not inSalicornia.[1] To French speakers inAtlantic Canada, they are known colloquially astétines de souris ('mouse tits'). The main European species is often eaten, calledmarsh samphire in Britain, and the main North American species is occasionally sold in grocery stores or appears on restaurant menus assea beans,samphire greens, orsea asparagus.
TheSalicornia species are small annual herbs. They grow prostrate to erect, their simple or branched stems are succulent, hairless, and appear to be jointed. The oppositeleaves are strongly reduced to small fleshy scales with a narrow dry margin, hairless, unstalked and united at the base, thus enclosing and forming a succulent sheath around the stem, which gives it the appearance of being composed of jointed segments.[2][3] Many species are green, but their foliage turns red in autumn. Older stems may be somewhat woody basally.
All stems terminate in spike-like apparently jointedinflorescences. Each joint consists of two opposite minute bracts with a (1-) 3-floweredcyme tightly embedded in cavities of the main axis and partly hidden by the bracts. The flowers are arranged in a triangle, both lateral flowers beneath the central flower. The hermaphroditeflowers are more or less radially symmetric, with aperianth of three fleshytepals united nearly to the apex. There are 1–2stamens and an ovary with twostigmas.[3]
The perianth is persistent in fruit. The fruit wall (pericarp) is membranous. The vertical seed is ellipsoid, with yellowish brown, membranous, hairy seed coat. The seed contains noperisperm (feeding tissue).[3]
Like most members of the subfamilySalicornioideae,Salicornia species use theC3 carbon fixation pathway to take in carbon dioxide from the surrounding atmosphere.[4]
The genusSalicornia wasfirst described in 1753 byCarl Linnaeus.[5] The annualSalicornia europaea was selected as thetype species.[6]
The genus probably originated during theMiocene in the region between theMediterranean Basin and Central Asia. Evolving from within the perennial and frost-sensitive former genusSarcocornia (now shown to beparaphyletic),[7] the annual, strongly inbreeding and frost-tolerantSalicornia diversified during the latePliocene to earlyPleistocene. By events of intercontinental dispersals, they reached southern Africa twice and North America at least three times. Two tetraploid lineages expanded rapidly, with the ability to colonize lower belts of thesalt marshes than their diploid relatives. Inbreeding and geographical isolation led to a large number of reproductive isolated species that are only weakly differentiated.[8]
The taxonomic classification of this genus is extremely difficult (with one paper calling it a "taxonomic nightmare").[8] The determination of species seems almost impossible for non-specialists. The reasons for these difficulties are the reduced habit with weak morphological differentiation and high phenotypic variability. As the succulent plants lose their characteristics while drying, herbarium specimens often cannot be determined with certainty and are less suited for taxonomic studies.[8]
Molecular phylogenetic studies have regularly revised thecircumscription of the genus. It was considered distinct fromSarcocornia in 2007 and 2012 studies.[8][9] A 2017 study resulted inSarcocornia beingsunk intoSalicornia – despite being the first perennial,[10] substantially increasing the size of the genus, which was divided into four subgenera.[7]
As of April 2022[update],Plants of the World Online accepted the following species:
The species ofSalicornia are widely distributed over theNorthern Hemisphere and in southern Africa, ranging from thesubtropics tosubarctic regions. There is one species present in New Zealand.[11]
They grow in coastal salt marshes and in inland salty habitats like shores ofsalt lakes.[8]Salicornia species arehalophytes and can generally tolerate immersion in salt water (hygrohalophytes).
Salicornia species are used as food plants by thelarvae of someLepidoptera species, including theColeophora case-bearersC. atriplicis andC. salicorniae; the latter feeds exclusively onSalicornia spp.[citation needed]
S. europaea is edible, either cooked or raw,[12] as areS. rubra andS. depressa.[13] In England,S. europaea is one of several plants known assamphire (includingrock samphire); the term samphire is believed to be a corruption of the French name,[herbe de] Saint-Pierre, which means "St. Peter's herb".[14]
In Hawaii, where it is known as "sea asparagus", it is often blanched and used as a topping for salads or accompaniment for fish.[15][16]
In addition toS. europaea, the seeds ofS. bigelovii yield an edible oil.S. bigelovii's edibility is compromised somewhat because it containssaponins, which are toxic under certain conditions.[12]
Umari keerai (S. brachiata) is cooked and eaten or pickled. It is also used as fodder for cattle, sheep, and goats.[17] InKalpitiya, Sri Lanka, it is used to feed donkeys.
On the east coast of Canada, the plant is known as "samphire greens" and is a local delicacy. Insoutheast Alaska, it is known asbeach asparagus. InNova Scotia, Canada, they are known ascrow's foot greens. InBritish Columbia, they are known as sea asparagus.[18] In the United States, they are known as "sea beans" when used for culinary purposes. Other names includesea green bean,sea pickle, and marsh samphire.[19]
In India, researchers at theCentral Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute developed a process to yield culinary salt fromS. brachiata. The resulting product is known asvegetable salt and sold under the brand name Saloni.[20]
Dehydrated, pulverizedSalicornia is sold under the brand name "Green Salt" as asalt substitute claimed to be as salty in taste as table salt, but with less sodium.[21][22]
In South Korea, Phyto Corporation has developed a technology of extracting low-sodium salt fromS. europaea, a salt-accumulating plant. The company claims that the naturally derived plant salt is effective in treatinghigh blood pressure andfatty liver disease[23] by reducing sodium intake.[24] The company has also developed a desaltedSalicornia powder containingantioxidative and antithrombuspolyphenols, claimed to be effective in treatingobesity andarteriosclerosis,[25] as well as providing a means to help resolve global food shortages.[26]
Pickleweed is used inphytoextraction. It is highly effective at removingselenium from soil, which is absorbed by the plant and then released into the atmosphere to be dispersed by prevailing winds.[27] Pickleweed (S. bigelovii) has been found to have averagevolatilization rates 10–100 times higher than other species.[28]
The ashes ofglasswort andsaltwort plants and ofkelp were long used as a source of soda ash (mainlysodium carbonate) for glassmaking and soapmaking. The introduction of theLeBlanc process for industrial production of soda ash superseded the use of plant sources in the first half of the 19th century.
Umari keerai is used as raw material in paper and board factories.[17]
BecauseS. bigelovii can be grown using saltwater and its seeds contain high levels of unsaturatedoil (30 wt. %, mostlylinoleic acid) and protein (35 wt. %),[29][30] it can be used to produce animal feedstuff and as a biofuel feedstock on coastal land where conventional crops cannot be grown. Adding nitrogen-basedfertiliser to the seawater appears to increase the rate of growth and the eventual height of the plant,[31] and the effluent from marineaquaculture (e.g.shrimp farming) is a suggested use for this purpose.[29]
Experimental fields ofSalicornia have been planted in Ras al-Zawr (Saudi Arabia),[30]Eritrea (northeast Africa), andSonora (northwest Mexico)[32] aimed at the production ofbiodiesel. The company responsible for the Sonora trials (Global Seawater) claims between 225 and 250gallons of BQ-9000 biodiesel can be produced per hectare (approximately 2.5 acres) of salicornia,[33] and is promoting a $35 million scheme to create a 12,000-acre (49 km2) salicornia farm inBahia de Kino.[34]
Stems androots ofS. brachiata plants have a highcellulose content (ca. 30 wt. %), whereas tender stem tips exhibit a low cellulose content (9.2 wt. %).[35]S. brachiata revealed the dominance ofrhamnose,arabinose,mannose,galactose, andglucose, with meager presence ofribose andxylose in their structuralpolysaccharide.[36]
adequate fertilization increases significantly the relative growth rate especially during the 'rapid' phase of the vegetative stage[dead link]
Project Salicornia: Halophyte Cultivation in Sonora
Media related toSalicornia at Wikimedia Commons
Data related toSalicornia at Wikispecies