The first mention of the nameGeorgia is in Italian on themappa mundi ofPietro Vesconte dated 1320.[27] At the early stage of its appearance in the Latin world, the name was often spelledJorgia.[28] Lore-based theories were given by travellerJacques de Vitry, who explained the name's origin by the popularity ofSt. George among Georgians,[29] whileJean Chardin thought thatGeorgia came from the Greekγεωργός ('tiller of the land'). These centuries-old explanations for the wordGeorgia/Georgians are now mostly rejected by the scholarly community, who point to thePersian wordgurğ/gurğān (گرگ, 'wolf'[30]) as the likely root of the word.[31] Under this hypothesis, the same Persian root was later adopted in numerous other languages, including Slavic and West European languages.[31][32]
The native name isSakartvelo (საქართველო; 'land ofKartvelians'), derived from the core central Georgian region ofKartli, recorded from the 9th century, and in extended usage referring to the entire medievalKingdom of Georgia prior to the 13th century. The Georgiancircumfixsa-X-o is a standard geographic construction designating 'the area where X dwell', where X is anethnonym.[33] The self-designation used byethnic Georgians isKartvelebi (ქართველები, i.e. 'Kartvelians'), first attested in theUmm Leisun inscription found in theOld City of Jerusalem.
The medievalGeorgian Chronicles present an eponymous ancestor of the Kartvelians,Kartlos, a great-grandson ofJapheth who medieval chroniclers believed to have been the root of the local name of their kingdom. However, scholars agree that the wordKartli is derived from theKarts, a proto-Kartvelian tribe that emerged as a dominant regional group in ancient times.[31] The nameSakartvelo (საქართველო) consists of two parts. Its root,kartvel-i (ქართველ-ი), specifies an inhabitant of the core central-eastern Georgian region ofKartli, or Iberia as it is known in sources of theEastern Roman Empire.[34]
State name
The official name of the country isGeorgia per Article 2 of theGeorgian Constitution,[35] adopted in 1995. In Georgia's two official languages (Georgian andAbkhaz), the country is named საქართველო (Sakartvelo) and Қырҭтәыла (Kərttʷʼəla) respectively. Prior to the adoption of the Constitution in 1995 and following thedissolution of the USSR, the country was officially called the "Republic of Georgia".[36][37]
Several languages continue to use the Russian variant of the country's name,Gruzia, which the Georgian authorities have sought to replace through diplomatic campaigns. Since 2006, Israel,[38] Japan,[39], South Korea[40] and Hungary[41][42] officially changed their appellation of the country to variants of the EnglishGeorgia.[43] In 2020, Lithuania became the first country in the world to adoptSakartvelas in all official communications.[44]
The oldest traces ofarchaic humans in what is now Georgia date from approximately 1.8 million years ago in the form of theDmanisi hominins, a subspecies ofHomo erectus representing the oldest-known fossils of hominins inEurasia.[45] Buffered by theCaucasus and benefiting from theBlack Sea ecosystem, the region seems to have served as arefugium throughout thePleistocene,[46] while the first continuous primitive settlements date back to theMiddle Paleolithic, close to 200,000 years ago.[47] During theUpper Paleolithic, settlements developed mostly in Western Georgia, in the valleys of theRioni andQvirila rivers.[48]
KingMirian III converted the nation to Christianity in the 4th century.
The classical period saw the rise of a number of Georgian states, includingColchis in western Georgia, whereGreek mythology located theGolden Fleece sought after by theArgonauts. Archaeological evidence points to a wealthy kingdom in Colchis as early as the 14th century BC[54] and an extensive trade network withGreek colonies on the eastern Black Sea shore (such asDioscurias andPhasis),[55] though, the entire region would be annexed first byPontus and then by theRoman Republic in the first century BC.
Eastern Georgia remained a decentralized mosaic of various clans (ruled by individualmamasakhlisi) until the 4th century BC when it was conquered byAlexander the Great, eventually leading to the creation of theKingdom of Iberia under the protectorate of theSeleucid Empire, an early example of advanced state organization under one king and an aristocratic hierarchy.[56] Various wars with theRoman Empire,Parthia, andArmenia made Iberia regularly change its allegiance, though it remained a Roman client state for most of its history.
In 337, KingMirian III adopted Christianity as the state religion of Iberia, beginning the Christianization of the Western Caucasus region and solidly anchoring it in Rome's sphere of influence by abandoning the ancientGeorgian polytheistic religion heavily influenced byZoroastrianism.[57] However, thePeace of Acilisene in 384 formalized theSasanian control over the entire Caucasus, though Christian rulers of Iberia sought to rebel at times, leading to devastating wars in the 5–6th centuries, most famously under the rule of KingVakhtang Gorgasali who expanded Iberia to its largest historical extent by capturing all of western Georgia and building a new capital inTbilisi.
In 580, the Sasanian Empire abolished the Kingdom of Iberia, leading to the disintegration of its constituent territories into various feudal regions by theearly Middle Ages. TheRoman–Persian Wars plunged the region into chaos, with bothPersia andConstantinople supporting various warring factions in theCaucasus, however, theByzantine Empire was able to establish control over Georgian territories by the end of the 6th century, ruling Iberia indirectly through a localKouropalates.[58]
The lack of a central government in Georgia allowed the rise of theBagrationi dynasty in the early 9th century. Consolidating lands in the southwestern region ofTao-Klarjeti, PrinceAshot I (813–830) used infighting between Arab governors to expand his influence to Iberia and was recognized as Presiding Prince of Iberia by both theAbbasid Caliphate and the Byzantine Empire. Though Ashot's descendants formed competing princely lines,Adarnase IV managed to unify most Georgian lands (except for Kakheti and Abkhazia) and was crownedKing of the Iberians in888, restoring the monarchy abolished three centuries prior.[61]
In Western Georgia, theKingdom of Abkhazia benefited from the weakening of Byzantium in the region to unify various tribes and become one of the most powerful states of the Caucasus in the 8th century.[62] In the 9th-10th centuries, Abkhazia grew its influence through several military campaigns and came to control much of Iberia and competing with the Bagrationi. Dynastic conflicts eventually weakened Abkhazia in the second half of the 10th century while in Tao-Klarjeti, PrinceDavid III used his influence withinByzantine Anatolia to empower the Bagrationi. Bagrat III, heir of the Bagrationi dynasty, successively became King of Abkhazia (978), Prince of Tao-Klarjeti (1000), and King of the Iberians (1008), allowing him to unify most Georgian feudal states and be crowned in 1010 asKing of Georgia.
For much of the 11th century, the nascent Georgian kingdom experienced geopolitical and internal difficulties, with various noble factions opposed to the centralization of the Georgian state. They were often backed by the Byzantine Empire, which feared a dominion of the Caucasus region by the Bagrationi dynasty, and in some instances fueled internal conflict through aristocratic families seeking more power. However, ties between Byzantium and Georgia were normalized when the two countries faced a new common enemy, the risingSeljuk Empire in the 1060s. Following the decisive Byzantine defeat at theBattle of Manzikert in 1071, Constantinople started to retreat from eastern Anatolia and entrusted Georgia with its administration, placing Georgiaat the forefront of Turkish in the 1080s.
The Kingdom of Georgia reached its zenith in the 12th to early 13th centuries. This period during the reigns ofDavid IV (r. 1089–1125) and his great-granddaughterTamar (r. 1184–1213) has been widely termed as theGeorgian Golden Age.[63] This early Georgian renaissance, which preceded its Western European analog, was characterized by impressive military victories, territorial expansion, and a cultural renaissance in architecture, literature, philosophy and the sciences.[64] The Golden Age of Georgia left a legacy of great cathedrals, romantic poetry and literature, and the epic poemThe Knight in the Panther's Skin, considered a national epic.[65][66]
David IV suppressed dissent of feudal lords and centralized power in his hands to effectively deal with foreign threats. In 1121, he decisively defeated much larger Turkish armies during theBattle of Didgori and abolished theEmirate of Tbilisi.[67]
Queen Tamar, the first woman to rule medieval Georgia in her own right[68]
The 29-year reign of Tamar, the first female ruler of Georgia, is considered the most successful in Georgian history.[69] Tamar was given the title "king of kings"[68] and succeeded in neutralizing her opposition, while embarking on an energetic foreign policy aided by the downfall of the rival powers of the Seljuks and Byzantium. Supported by a powerful military élite, Tamar was able to build on the successes of her predecessors to consolidate an empire that dominated the Caucasus, and extended over large parts of present-day Azerbaijan, Armenia, eastern Turkey, and northern Iran, and used the vacuum of power left by theFourth Crusade to create theEmpire of Trebizond as a Georgian vassal state.[70]
The revival of the Kingdom of Georgia was set back after Tbilisi was captured and destroyed by the Khwarezmian leaderJalal ad-Din in 1226,[71] followed by devastating invasions by Mongol rulerGenghis Khan. The Mongols were expelled byGeorge V the Brilliant (r. 1299–1302), known for reuniting eastern and western Georgia and restoring the country's previous strength and Christian culture. After his death, local rulers fought for their independence from central Georgian rule, until the total disintegration of the kingdom in the 15th century. Georgia was further weakened by several disastrous invasions byTimur. Invasions continued, giving the kingdom no time for restoration, with bothQara Qoyunlu andAq Qoyunlu Turkomans constantly raiding its southern provinces.
The Kingdom of Georgiacollapsed into anarchy by 1466 and fragmented into three independent kingdoms and five semi-independentprincipalities. Neighboring large empires subsequently exploited the internal division of the weakened country, and beginning in the 16th century, various Ottoman and Iranian forces subjugated western and eastern regions of Georgia, respectively.[72] This pushed local Georgian rulers to seek closer ties with Russia. In 1649, theKingdom of Imereti sent ambassadors to the Russian royal court, with Russia returning the favor in 1651. In the presence of these ambassadors,Alexander III of Imereti swore an oath of allegiance to TsarAlexis of Russia on behalf of Imereti.[73] Subsequent rulers also sought assistance from PopeInnocent XII but without success.[74]
The rulers of regions that remained partlyautonomous organized rebellions on various occasions. As a result of incessantOttoman–Persian Wars and deportations, the population of Georgia dwindled to 784,700 inhabitants at the end of the 18th century.[75]Eastern Georgia, composed of the regions ofKartli andKakheti, had been under Iraniansuzerainty since thePeace of Amasya signed with neighboring rivalling Ottoman Turkey (Safavid Georgia). With the death ofNader Shah in 1747, both kingdoms broke free and were reunified througha personal union under the energetic kingHeraclius II, who succeeded in stabilizing Eastern Georgia to a degree.[76]
KingHeraclius II was caught between rival regional powers.
In 1783, Russia and the eastern GeorgianKingdom of Kartli-Kakheti signed theTreaty of Georgievsk, which made eastern Georgia a protectorate of Russia, guaranteed its territorial integrity and the continuation of its reigning Bagrationi dynasty in return for prerogatives in the conduct of Georgian foreign affairs.[77]
Despite its commitment to defend Georgia, Russia rendered no assistance when theIranians invaded in 1795,capturing and sacking Tbilisi and massacring its inhabitants.[78] Although Russia initiated apunitive campaign against Persia in 1796, the Russian Imperial authorities subsequently violated key promises of the Georgievsk Treaty and in 1801 proceeded to annex eastern Georgia, while abolishing the Georgian royalBagrationi dynasty, as well as theautocephaly of theGeorgian Orthodox Church.Pyotr Bagration, one of the descendants of the abolished house of Bagrationi, later joined the Russian army and became a prominent general in the Napoleonic wars.[79]
On 22 December 1800,TsarPaul I of Russia, at the alleged request of the Georgian KingGeorge XII, signed the proclamation on the incorporation of Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti) within the Russian Empire, which was finalized by a decree on 8 January 1801,[80][81] and confirmed by TsarAlexander I on 12 September 1801.[82][83] TheBagrationi royal family was deported from the kingdom. The Georgian envoy inSaint Petersburg reacted with a note of protest that was presented to the Russian vice-chancellor, Prince Kurakin.[84]
In May 1801, under the oversight of General Carl Heinrich von Knorring, Imperial Russia transferred power in eastern Georgia to the government headed by GeneralIvan Petrovich Lazarev.[85] The Georgian nobility did not accept the decree until 12 April 1802, when Knorring assembled the nobility at theSioni Cathedral and forced them to take an oath on theImperial Crown of Russia. Those who disagreed were temporarily arrested.[86]
In the summer of 1805, Russian troops on the Askerani River near Zagam defeated the Iranian army during the1804–13 Russo-Persian War and saved Tbilisi from reconquest now that it was officially part of the Imperial territories. Russian suzerainty over eastern Georgia was officially finalized with Iran in 1813 following theTreaty of Gulistan.[87] Following the annexation of eastern Georgia, the western Georgiankingdom of Imereti was annexed by Tsar Alexander I. The last Imeretian king and the last Georgian Bagrationi ruler,Solomon II, died in exile in 1815, after attempts to rally people against Russia and to enlist foreign support against the latter, had been in vain.[88]
From 1803 to 1878, as a result of numerous Russian wars now againstOttoman Turkey, several of Georgia's previously lost territories – such asAdjara – were recovered, and also incorporated into the empire. The principality ofGuria was abolished and incorporated into the Empire in 1829, whileSvaneti was gradually annexed in 1858.Mingrelia, although a Russian protectorate since 1803, was not absorbed until 1867.[89]
Russian rule offered the Georgians security from external threats, but it was also often heavy-handed and insensitive. By the late 19th century,discontent with the Russian authorities grew into a national revival movement led byIlia Chavchavadze. This period also brought social and economic change to Georgia, with new social classes emerging: the emancipation of theserfs freed many peasants but did little to alleviate their poverty; the growth ofcapitalism created an urban working class in Georgia. Both peasants and workers found expression for their discontent through revolts and strikes, culminating in theRevolution of 1905. Their cause was championed by thesocialistMensheviks, who became the dominant political force in Georgia in the final years of Russian rule.
The 1918Georgian–Armenian War, which erupted over parts of disputed provinces between Armenia and Georgia populated mostly by Armenians, ended because of British intervention. In 1918–1919, Georgian generalGiorgi Mazniashvili led an attack against theWhite Army led by Moiseev and Denikin to claim theBlack Sea coastline fromTuapse toSochi andAdler for independent Georgia.[92] In 1920Soviet Russia recognized Georgia's independence with theTreaty of Moscow. But the recognition proved to be of little value, as the Red Armyinvaded Georgia in 1921 and formally annexed it into the Soviet Union in 1922.[90]
In February 1921, during theRussian Civil War, theRed Army advanced into Georgia and brought the local Bolsheviks to power. The Georgian army was defeated, and the Social Democratic government fled the country. On25 February 1921, the Red Army entered Tbilisi and established a government of workers' and peasants'soviets withFilipp Makharadze as acting head of state. Georgia was incorporated into what would soon become theSoviet Union. Soviet rule was firmly established only after local insurrections were defeated.[93] Georgia would remain an unindustrialized periphery of the USSR until thefirst five-year plan (1928–1932), when it became a major centre for textile goods.
Joseph Stalin, an ethnic Georgian, was prominent among the Bolsheviks,[94] ultimately becoming thede facto leader of the Soviet Union from 1924 until his death on 5 March 1953. Fellow Georgians such asLavrentiy Beria andVsevolod Merkulov likewise held powerful positions in the Soviet government. Stalin'sGreat Purge between 1936 and 1938 led to thousands of Georgian dissidents, intellectuals, and other presumed threats to Soviet authority being executed or sent toGulag penal labor camps, severely truncating the nation's cultural and intellectual life.[95]
DuringWorld War II,Germany led anAxis invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 with the aim of conquering all territory up to theUral Mountains. As the initial operation stalled, the Axis launched theFall Blau offensive in 1942 to take control of strategic Caucasian oil fields and munitions factories; ultimately, Axis troops were stopped before reaching Georgian borders. Over 700,000 Georgians—constituting about 20 percent of the population—fought in theRed Army to repel the invaders and advance towards Berlin; an estimated 350,000 were killed.[96]
AfterStalin's death,Nikita Khrushchev became the leader of the Soviet Union and implemented a policy ofde-Stalinization. Khrushchev's purges were met withriots in Tbilisi that had to be dispersed by military force. This violent turn of events that compromised Georgian loyalty to the Soviet Union, contributing to the nation's consolidation.[97]1978 Georgian demonstrations saw the return of mass anti-Soviet protests, but this time government backed down.
Throughout the remainder of the Soviet period, Georgia's economy continued to grow and experience significant improvement, though it increasingly exhibited blatant corruption and alienation of the government from the people. With the beginning ofperestroika in 1986, the Georgian Soviet leadership proved so incapable of handling the changes that most Georgians, includingrank and file communists, concluded that the only way forward was a break from the existing Soviet system.
In October 1990, the first multi-partyelections were held in Soviet Georgia, which were the first multi-party elections in the entire Soviet Union, in which the opposition groups were registered as formal political parties.[99] TheRound Table—Free Georgia coalition led by Zviad Gamsakhurdia secured victory in this election and formed a new government. On 9 April 1991, shortly before the collapse of the Soviet Union, theSupreme Council of Georgiadeclared independence [ka] after areferendum held on 31 March.[100] Georgia was the first non-Baltic republic of the Soviet Union to officially declare independence,[101] with Romania becoming the first country to recognize Georgia in August 1991.[102] On 26 May, Gamsakhurdia was elected president in thefirst presidential election with 86.5% of the vote on a turnout of over 83%.[103]
Gamsakhurdia was soon deposed in abloodycoup d'état, from 22 December 1991 to 6 January 1992. The coup was instigated by part of theNational Guard and a paramilitary organization called "Mkhedrioni" ("horsemen"). The country then became embroiled in a bittercivil war, which lasted until December 1993. Simmering disputes within two regions of Georgia,Abkhazia andSouth Ossetia, between local separatists and the majority Georgian populations, erupted into widespread inter-ethnic violence and wars.[104] Supported by Russia, Abkhazia and South Ossetia achievedde facto independence from Georgia, with Georgia retaining control only in small areas of the disputed territories.[104]Eduard Shevardnadze (SovietMinister of Foreign Affairs from 1985 to 1991) was named as the head of Georgia's new government in March 1992[105] and was elected as head of state inthat year's elections, later as president in1995.[106]
During theWar in Abkhazia (1992–1993), roughly 230,000 to 250,000 Georgians[107] were expelled from Abkhazia by Abkhaz separatists and North Caucasian militants (including Chechens). Around 23,000 Georgians fled South Ossetia.[108]
In 1994, Georgia was facing an economic crisis, with severe shortages of basics such as bread, water, electricity and heat.[109]
In 2003, Shevardnadze (who won re-election in 2000) was deposed by theRose Revolution, after Georgian opposition and international monitors asserted that the 2 November2003 parliamentary elections were marred by fraud.[110] The revolution was led byMikheil Saakashvili,Zurab Zhvania andNino Burjanadze, former members and leaders of Shevardnadze's ruling party. Mikheil Saakashvili was elected as President of Georgia in 2004.[111]
Following the Rose Revolution, a series of reforms were launched to strengthen the country's military and economic capabilities, as well as to reorient its foreign policy westwards. The new government's efforts to reassert Georgian authority in the southwestern autonomous republic ofAdjara led to a majorcrisis in 2004.[112]
The country's newly pro-Western stance, along with accusations of Georgian involvement in theSecond Chechen War,[113] resulted in a severe deterioration ofrelations with Russia, fueled also by Russia's open assistance and support to the two secessionist areas. Despite these increasingly difficult relations, in May 2005 Georgia and Russia reached a bilateral agreement[114] by which Russian military bases (dating back to the Soviet era) inBatumi andAkhalkalaki were withdrawn. Russia withdrew all personnel and equipment from these sites by December 2007[115] while failing to withdraw from theGudauta base in Abkhazia, which it was required to vacate after the adoption of theAdapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty during the1999 Istanbul summit.[116]
A bomb explosion on 1 August 2008 targeted a car transporting Georgian peacekeepers. South Ossetians were responsible for instigating this incident, which marked the opening of hostilities and injured five Georgian servicemen, then several South Ossetian militiamen were killed by snipers.[119][120] South Ossetian separatists began shelling Georgian villages on 1 August. These artillery bombardments caused Georgian servicemen to return fire periodically.[117][120][121][122][123]
On 7 August 2008, the Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili announced a unilateralceasefire and called for peace talks.[124] More attacks on Georgian villages (located in the South Ossetian conflict zone) were soon matched with gunfire from Georgian troops, who then proceeded to move in the direction of the capital of theself-proclaimed Republic of South Ossetia (Tskhinvali) on the night of 8 August, reaching its centre in the morning of 8 August.[125][126][127] According to Russian military expertPavel Felgenhauer, the Ossetian provocation was aimed at triggering Georgian retaliation, which was needed as apretext for a Russian military invasion.[128] According to Georgian intelligence and several Russian media reports, parts of the regular (non-peacekeeping) Russian Army had already moved to South Ossetian territory through theRoki Tunnel before the Georgian military action.[129][130]
Russia accused Georgia of "aggression against South Ossetia" and began a large land, air and sea invasion of Georgia under the pretext of a "peace enforcement" operation on 8 August 2008.[131][122]Abkhaz forces opened a second front on 9 August with theBattle of the Kodori Valley, an attack on the Kodori Gorge, held by Georgia.[132] Tskhinvali was seized by the Russian military by 10 August.[133] Russian forces occupied Georgian cities beyond the disputed territories.[134]
During the conflict, there was a campaign ofethnic cleansing against Georgians in South Ossetia, including destruction of Georgian settlements after the war had ended.[135][136] The war displaced 192,000 people and while many were able to return to their homes after the war. One year later, around 30,000 ethnic Georgians remained displaced.[137][138] In an interview published inKommersant, South Ossetian leaderEduard Kokoity said he would not allow Georgians to return.[139][140]
In preparation for the2012 parliamentary elections, Georgia implemented constitutional reforms to switch to aparliamentary democracy, moving executive powers from the President to the Prime Minister.[148] The transition was set to start with the October 2012 parliamentary elections and to be completed with the2013 presidential elections.Against the expectations of the ruling United National Movement (UNM) of president Mikheil Saakashvili, a 6-partycoalition centred around the newly foundedGeorgian Dream party won theparliamentary elections in October 2012, bringing an end to nine years of UNM rule and marking the first peaceful electoral transfer of power in Georgia. Georgian Dream started as a centre-left and pro-European party, gradually moved to culturally conservative and Eurosceptic, has also been described as lacking a clear ideology,[149] and is being led by the strongly pro-Russian oligarchBidzina Ivanishvili.[150]
President Saakashvili acknowledged the defeat of his party on the following day.[151] Georgian Dream was founded, led and financed by tycoonBidzina Ivanishvili, the country's richest man, who was subsequently elected by parliament as new Prime Minister.[152] Due to the incomplete transition to parliamentary democracy, a year of uneasycohabitation between Ivanishvili and Saakashvili followed until thepresidential election in October 2013,[153][154] which was won byGiorgi Margvelashvili from the Georgian Dream party.[155] With the completed transfer of power, Prime Minister Ivanishvili stepped aside and named one of his close business associates,Irakli Garibashvili, as the next prime minister.[156] Ivanishvili has since been called the informal leader of Georgia, arranging political reappointments from behind the scenes.[157] Saakashvili left Georgia shortly after the election. In 2018, he was convicted in absentia on corruption charges and abuse of power, which he denied.[158]
Georgian Dream won the 2016parliamentary elections with 48.61% of the vote while UNM received 27.04%.[159] As result of the mixed proportional-majoritarian voting system, this translated into a parliamentarysupermajority of 115 out of 150 seats (77%). This electoral imbalance became a key issue of political and civil society strife in the following years.[160][161][162] In the2018 presidential election, the Georgian Dream party backedSalome Zurabishvili, who won in the second round, becoming the first woman in Georgia to hold the office in full capacity.[163] This was the last direct election of a Georgian president, as additional constitutional reforms removed the popular vote.[164]
After international mediation to overcome the deep political crisis in the run-up to the 2020 parliamentary elections, an amended electoral system was adopted, specifically for the2020 elections.[165] Nine parties were elected to parliament. Georgian Dream secured over 48% of votes, which translated into 90 out of 150 seats. They were thus able to continue to govern alone. The opposition made accusations of fraud, which Georgian Dream denied. Thousands of people gathered outside the Central Election Commission to demand a new vote.[166] This led to a new political crisis that was (temporarily) resolved by an EU brokered agreement,[167] from which the Georgian Dream later withdrew.[168] In February 2021, Prime MinisterGiorgi Gakharia resigned and Irakli Garibashvili became Prime Minister once more.[169]
During the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Georgian provided diplomatic and humanitarian support for Ukraine but did not join other countries in imposing sanctions on Russia. Since the beginning of war Georgia has topped the list of countries to whichRussian exiles moved; Russians have been allowed to stay in Georgia for at least one year without a visa since 2015, though many Georgians began to view the presence of more Russian citizens in Georgia as a security risk.[170][171]
Georgia is a mountainous country situated almost entirely in theSouth Caucasus, whilesome slivers of the country are situated north of theCaucasus Watershed in theNorth Caucasus.[185][186] The country lies between latitudes41° and44° N, and longitudes40° and47° E, with an area of 67,900 km2 (26,216 sq mi). TheLikhi Range divides the country into eastern and western halves.[187] Historically, the western portion of Georgia was known as Colchis while the eastern plateau was called Iberia.[188]
TheGreater Caucasus Mountain Range forms the northern border of Georgia.[187] The main roads through the mountain range into Russian territory lead through the Roki Tunnel betweenShida Kartli and North Ossetia and theDarial Gorge (in the Georgian region ofKhevi). The southern portion of the country is bounded by theLesser Caucasus Mountains.[187] The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range is much higher in elevation than the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, with the highest peaks rising more than 5,000 metres (16,404 ft)above sea level.
The highest mountain in Georgia is MountShkhara at 5,203 metres (17,070 ft), and the second highest is MountJanga at 5,059 m (16,598 ft) above sea level. Other prominent peaks includeMount Kazbek at 5,047 m (16,558 ft),Shota Rustaveli Peak 4,960 m (16,273 ft),Tetnuldi 4,858 m (15,938 ft),Ushba 4,700 m (15,420 ft), andAilama 4,547 m (14,918 ft).[187] Out of the abovementioned peaks, only Kazbek is ofvolcanic origin. The region betweenKazbek and Shkhara (a distance of about 200 km (124 mi) along the Main Caucasus Range) is dominated by numerous glaciers.[188]
The term Lesser Caucasus Mountains is often used to describe the mountainous (highland) areas of southern Georgia that are connected to the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range by the Likhi Range.[187] The overall region can be characterized as being made up of various, interconnected mountain ranges (largely of volcanic origin) and plateaus that do not exceed 3,400 metres (11,155 ft) in elevation. Prominent features of the area include theJavakheti Volcanic Plateau, lakes, includingTabatskuri andParavani, as well as mineral water and hot springs. Two majorrivers in Georgia are theRioni and theMtkvari.[188]
Topography
Svaneti region of GeorgiaMountain lakes in the country's northwest
The landscape within the nation's boundaries is quite varied. Western Georgia's landscape ranges from low-land marsh-forests, swamps, andtemperate rainforests to eternal snows and glaciers, while the eastern part of the country even contains a small segment ofsemi-arid plains.[188]
Much of the natural habitat in the low-lying areas of western Georgia has disappeared during the past 100 years because ofagricultural development and urbanization. A large majority of the forests that covered the Colchis plain are now virtually non-existent with the exception of the regions that are included in the national parks and reserves (e.g.Lake Paliastomi area). At present, the forest cover generally remains outside of the low-lying areas and is mainly located along the foothills and the mountains. Western Georgia's forests consist mainly of deciduous trees below 600 metres (1,969 ft)above sea level and contain species such asoak,hornbeam,beech,elm,ash, andchestnut. Evergreen species such asbox may also be found in many areas. About 1,000 of the 4,000 higher plants of Georgia areendemic.[189]
A chapel in the cave city ofVardzia, with the valley of theKura River below
The west-central slopes of theMeskheti Range inAjaria as well as several locations in Samegrelo and Abkhazia are covered bytemperate rain forests. Between 600–1,000 metres (1,969–3,281 ft) above sea level, the deciduous forest becomes mixed with both broad-leaf and coniferous species making up the plant life. The zone is made up mainly of beech,spruce, andfir forests. From 1,500–1,800 metres (4,921–5,906 ft), the forest becomes largely coniferous. The tree line generally ends at around 1,800 metres (5,906 ft) and the alpine zone takes over, which in most areas, extends up to an elevation of 3,000 metres (9,843 ft)above sea level.[188]Eastern Georgia's landscape (referring to the territory east of theLikhi Range) is considerably different from that of the west, although, much like the Colchis plain in the west, nearly all of the low-lying areas of eastern Georgia including theMtkvari andAlazani River plains have beendeforested for agricultural purposes.[citation needed] The general landscape of eastern Georgia comprises numerous valleys and gorges that are separated by mountains. In contrast with western Georgia, nearly 85 per cent of the forests of the region are deciduous. Coniferous forests only dominate in theBorjomi Gorge and in the extreme western areas. Out of the deciduous species of trees,beech,oak, andhornbeam dominate. Other deciduous species include several varieties ofmaple,aspen, ash, andhazelnut.[188]
At higher elevations above 1,000 metres (3,281 ft)above sea level (particularly in theTusheti,Khevsureti, andKhevi regions),pine andbirch forests dominate. In general, the forests in eastern Georgia occur between 500–2,000 metres (1,640–6,562 ft) above sea level, with the alpine zone extending from 2,000–2,300 to 3,000–3,500 meters (6,562–7,546 to 9,843–11,483 ft). The only remaining large, low-land forests remain in theAlazani Valley of Kakheti.[188]
Parts of Western Georgia have a subtropical climate, with frequent rain and plenty of green vegetation.A smallalpine lake in northeastern Georgia
The climate of Georgia is extremely diverse, considering the nation's small size. There are two main climatic zones, roughly corresponding to the eastern and western parts of the country. The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range plays an important role in moderating Georgia's climate and protects the nation from the penetration of colder air masses from the north. The Lesser Caucasus Mountains partially protect the region from the influence of dry and hot air masses from the south.[190]
Much of western Georgia lies within the northern periphery of the humid subtropical zone with annual precipitation ranging from 1,000–2,500 mm (39–98 in), reaching a maximum during the Autumn months. The climate of the region varies significantly with elevation and while much of the lowland areas of western Georgia are relatively warm throughout the year, the foothills and mountainous areas (including both the Greater and Lesser Caucasus Mountains) experience cool, wet summers and snowy winters (snow cover often exceeds 2 metres or 6 feet 7 inches in many regions).[190]
Eastern Georgia has a transitional climate from humid subtropical to continental. The region's weather patterns are influenced both by dry Caspian air masses from the east and humid Black Sea air masses from the west. The penetration of humid air masses from the Black Sea is often blocked by mountain ranges (Likhi andMeskheti) that separate the eastern and western parts of the nation.[188] The wettest periods generally occur during spring and autumn, while winter and summer months tend to be the driest. Much of eastern Georgia experiences hot summers (especially in the low-lying areas) and relatively cold winters. As in the western parts of the nation, elevation plays an important role in eastern Georgia where climatic conditions above 1,500 metres (4,921 ft) are considerably colder than in the low-lying areas.[188]
Because of its high landscape diversity and low latitude, Georgia is home to about 5,601 species of animals, including 648 species ofvertebrates (more than 1% of the species found worldwide) and many of these species are endemics.[191] A number of largecarnivores live in the forests, namelybrown bears,wolves,lynxes andCaucasian leopards. Thecommon pheasant (also known as the Colchian pheasant) is an endemic bird of Georgia which has been widely introduced throughout the rest of the world as agame bird. The number ofinvertebrate species is considered to be very high but data is distributed across a high number of publications. The spider checklist of Georgia, for example, includes 501 species.[192] TheRioni River may contain a breeding population of the critically endangeredbastard sturgeon.[193]
Slightly more than 6,500 species offungi, including lichen-forming species, have been recorded from Georgia,[194][195] but this number is far from complete. The true total number of fungal species occurring in Georgia, including species not yet recorded, is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about seven per cent of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.[196] Although the amount of available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Georgia, and 2,595 species have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the country.[197] 1,729 species of plants have been recorded from Georgia in association with fungi.[195] According to theInternational Union for Conservation of Nature, there are 4,300 species of vascular plants in Georgia.[198]
Legislative authority is vested in theParliament of Georgia. It is unicameral and has 150 members, known as deputies, of whom 30 are elected by plurality to represent single-member districts, and 120 are chosen to represent parties by proportional representation. Members of parliament are elected for four-year terms.
Different opinions exist regarding the degree of political freedom in Georgia. Saakashvili believed in 2008 that the country is "on the road to becoming a European democracy."[202] In their 2022 report[update]Freedom House lists Georgia as "partly free", recognizing a trajectory of democratic improvement surrounding the 2012–13 transfer of power but observed a process of democratic backslide in later years of theGeorgian Dream rule.[203] In the 2023Democracy Index, theEconomist Intelligence Unit classifies Georgia as a "hybrid regime", which denotes an incompletedemocratic transition fromauthoritarianism todemocracy characterized by elements of both systems.[204]
The explicit western orientation of Georgia, deepening political ties with the US and European Union, notably through its EU and NATO membership aspirations, the USTrain and Equip military assistance programme, and the construction of theBaku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline, increasingly strained Tbilisi's relations with Moscow in the early 2000s. Georgia's decision to boost its presence in the coalition forces in Iraq was an important initiative.[205] The European Union has identified Georgia as a prospective member,[206] and Georgia has sought membership.[207]
Georgia is currently working to become a full member ofNATO. In August 2004, the Individual Partnership Action Plan of Georgia was submitted officially to NATO. On 29 October 2004, theNorth Atlantic Council of NATO approved theIndividual Partnership Action Plan (IPAP) of Georgia, and Georgia moved on to the second stage of Euro-Atlantic Integration. In 2005, the agreement on the appointment ofPartnership for Peace (PfP) liaison officer between Georgia and NATO came into force, whereby a liaison officer for the South Caucasus was assigned to Georgia. On 2 March 2005, the agreement was signed on the provision of the host nation support to and transit of NATO forces and NATO personnel. On 6–9 March 2006, the IPAP implementation interim assessment team arrived in Tbilisi. On 13 April 2006, the discussion of the assessment report on implementation of the Individual Partnership Action Plan was held at NATO Headquarters, within 26+1 format.[208] In 2009 the Georgia-NATO Interparliamentary Council was created within theNATO Parliamentary Assembly to hold twice yearly meetings to discuss all aspects of Georgia-NATO cooperation. In 2017, a poll by the National Democratic Institute, an American NGO, revealed that the majority of Georgians and politicians in Georgia support the push for NATO membership.[209]
In 2011, theNorth Atlantic Council designated Georgia as an "aspirant country".[210] Since 2014, Georgia–NATO relations are guided by the Substantial NATO–Georgia Package (SNGP), which includes the NATO–Georgia Joint Training and Evaluation Centre and facilitation of multi-national and regional military drills.[211]
In September 2019, Russian Foreign MinisterSergey Lavrov said that "NATO approaching our borders is a threat to Russia."[212] He was quoted as saying that ifNATO accepts Georgian membership with the article on collective defence covering only Tbilisi-administered territory—i.e., excluding the Georgian territories Abkhazia and South Ossetia, both of which are currently Russian-supportedunrecognized breakaway republics—"we will not start a war, but such conduct will undermine our relations with NATO and with countries who are eager to enter the alliance."[213]
George W. Bush became the first sitting U.S. president to visit the country.[214] The street leading toTbilisi International Airport has since been dubbed George W. Bush Avenue.[215] On 2 October 2006, Georgia and the European Union signed a joint statement on the agreed text of the Georgia–European Union Action Plan within theEuropean Neighbourhood Policy (ENP). The Action Plan was formally approved at the EU–Georgia Cooperation Council session on 14 November 2006, inBrussels.[216] In June 2014, the EU and Georgia signed anAssociation Agreement, which entered into force on 1 July 2016.[217] On 13 December 2016, EU and Georgia reached the agreement on visa liberalization for Georgian citizens.[218] On 27 February 2017, the Council adopted a regulation on visa liberalization for Georgians travelling to the EU for a period of stay of 90 days in any 180-day period.[219]
Georgia applied for EU membership on 3 March 2022, soon after the beginning of theRussian invasion of Ukraine.[220] In December 2023, Georgia was grantedEU Candidate status by theEuropean Council.[221][222][223][224] In November 2024, Prime Minister Irakli Kobakhidze declared the country's EU accession process would be paused until 2028, leading to protests.[225]
Georgia's military is organized intoland andair forces collectively known as the Georgian Defense Forces (GDF); naval forces were merged into the Coast Guard in 2009, which falls under the Internal Affairs Minister. More than 20% of the GDF consists ofconscripts.[226] The mission and functions of the GDF are based on theConstitution of Georgia, Georgia's Law on Defense and National Military Strategy, and international agreements to which Georgia is signatory.[citation needed] As of 2021, Georgia's military budget was 900₾ ($280) million, of which newly two-thirds is allocated for maintaining defence forces readiness and potency development.[227] After its independence from the Soviet Union, Georgia began to develop its ownmilitary industry, namely through the state ownedSTC Delta.[228] The country produces a range of indigenousmilitary equipment, including armored vehicles, artillery systems, aviation systems, personal protection equipment, and small arms.[229]
Georgian military personnel have served in several international operations. During later periods of theIraq War, Georgia had up to 2,000 soldiers serving in the American-ledMulti-National Force.[230] Georgia also participated in theNATO-ledInternational Security Assistance Force inAfghanistan; with 1,560 troops in 2013, it was at that time the largest contributor among non-NATO countries[231] and in per capita terms.[232][233] Over 11,000 Georgian soldiers rotated through Afghanistan during the course of the war;[234]32 were killed,[235] mostly during theHelmand campaign, and 435 were wounded, including 35 amputees.[236][237]
The Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia is charged with internal law enforcement. In recent years, the Patrol Police Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia has undergone a radical transformation, with the police having now absorbed a great many duties previously performed by dedicated independent government agencies. New duties performed by the police include border security and customs functions and contracted security provision; the latter function is performed by the dedicated 'security police'.[citation needed]
In 2005, PresidentMikheil Saakashvili fired the entire traffic police force (numbering around 30,000 police officers) of the Georgian National Police due to corruption.[238][239] A new force was then subsequently built around new recruits.[238] TheU.S. State Department's Bureau of International Narcotics and Law-Enforcement Affairs has provided assistance to the training efforts and continues to act in an advisory capacity.[240]
The newPatruli force was first introduced in the summer of 2005 to replace the traffic police, a force which was accused of widespread corruption.[241] The police introduced a 0–2–2 (currently, 1–1–2)emergency dispatch service in 2004.[242]
Prior to theRose Revolution, Georgia was among the most corrupt countries in the world.[243] However, following the reforms brought by the peaceful revolution, corruption in the country abated dramatically. In 2010,Transparency International (TI) named Georgia "the best corruption-buster in the world."[244] In 2012, theWorld Bank called Georgia a "unique success" of the world in fighting corruption, noting "Georgia's experience shows that the vicious cycle of endemic corruption can be broken and, with appropriate and decisive reforms, can be turned into a virtuous cycle."[245]
Although Georgia has been very successful in reducing blatant forms of corruption, other more subtle corrupt practices have been noted. For example, in its 2017 report,Council of Europe observed that while most day-to-day corruption has been eliminated, there are some indications of a "clientelistic system" whereby the country's leadership may allocate resources in ways that generate the loyalty and support it needs to stay in power.[246] Since 2012 stagnation in corruption fighting efforts can be observed, according to Transparency International.[247] Since 2016 the Transparency International Corruption Perception Index hovers around 56 out of 100 points. In comparison, that places Georgia in the top 50 out of 180 countries, among Central European andMediterranean EU member states.[248]
The government came under criticism for its alleged use of excessive force on 26 May 2011 when it dispersedprotesters led byNino Burjanadze, among others, with tear gas and rubber bullets after they refused to clearRustaveli Avenue for an independence day parade despite the expiration of their demonstration permit and despite being offered to choose an alternative venue.[251][252][253][254] While human rights activists maintained that the protests were peaceful, the government pointed out that many protesters were masked and armed with heavy sticks and Molotov cocktails.[255] Georgian opposition leader Nino Burjanadze said the accusations of planning a coup were baseless, and that the protesters' actions were legitimate.[254][256]
Georgians protesting againsthomophobia in front of parliament following anti-LGBT unrest
Since independence, Georgia maintained harsh policies against drugs, handing out lengthy sentences even formarijuana use. This came under criticism from human rights activists[257] and led to protests.[258] In response to lawsuits from civil society organizations, in 2018 theConstitutional Court of Georgia ruled that "consumption of marijuana is an action protected by the right to free personality"[259] and that "[Marijuana] can only harm the user's health, making that user him/herself responsible for the outcome. The responsibility for such actions does not cause dangerous consequences for the public."[260] With this ruling, Georgia became one of thefirst countries in the world to legalize cannabis, although using the drug in the presence of children is still illegal and punishable by fines or imprisonment.[261] Georgian prisons tend to be overcrowded with poor living conditions.[262][263]
LGBT individuals in Georgia frequently face harassment and violence.[264] Minor protections exist against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity. Since 2008 transgender people are allowed to change their gender marker followingsex reassignment surgery. However,a bill passed in 2024 seeks to remove many protections from LGBT people.[265][266][267] TheEuropean Union, and various human rights organizations have condemned the legislation.[265][268][269] In 2024, Georgian PresidentSalome Zourabichvili condemned the high-profile murder ofKesaria Abramidze, a transgender woman, and subsequently attended her funeral to pay respects.[270][271]
Map of Georgia highlighting the disputed territories of Abkhazia and Tskhinvali Region (South Ossetia), both of which are outside the control of the central government of Georgia
Georgia isadministratively divided into 9 regions, 1 capital region, and 2 autonomous republics. These in turn are subdivided into 67districts and 5 self-governing cities.[272]
Georgia contains two official autonomous regions, of which one has declared independence. Officially autonomous within Georgia,[273] the de facto independent region of Abkhazia declared independence in 1999.[274] In addition, another territory not officially autonomous has also declared independence. South Ossetia is officially known by Georgia as the Tskhinvali region, as it views "South Ossetia" as implying political bonds with RussianNorth Ossetia.[275] It was calledSouth Ossetian Autonomous Oblast when Georgia was part of Soviet Union. Its autonomous status was revoked in 1990. De facto separate since Georgian independence, offers were made to give South Ossetia autonomy again, but in 2006 an unrecognized referendum in the area resulted in a vote for independence.[275]
In both Abkhazia and South Ossetia large numbers of people had been given Russian passports, some through a process of forcedpassportization by Russian authorities.[276] This was used as a justification for Russian invasion of Georgia during the 2008 South Ossetia war after which Russia recognized the region's independence.[277] Georgia considers the regions as occupied by Russia.[146][278] The two self-declared republics gainedlimited international recognition after the 2008 Russo-Georgian War. Most countries consider the regions to be Georgian territoryunder Russian occupation.[279]
Countries with whom Georgia signed Free Trade Agreement (FTA)
Countries with whom Georgia has General Schemes of Preference (GSP)
Archaeological research demonstrates that Georgia has been involved in commerce with many lands and empires since ancient times, largely due its location on the Black Sea and later on the historicalSilk Road. Gold, silver, copper andiron have been mined in theCaucasus Mountains.Georgian wine making is a very old tradition and a key branch of the country's economy. The country has sizeablehydropower resources.[280] Throughout Georgia's modern history agriculture and tourism have been principal economic sectors, because of the country's climate and topography.
For much of the 20th century, Georgia's economy was within the Soviet model ofcommand economy. Since the fall of the USSR in 1991, Georgia embarked on a major structural reform designed to transition to afree market economy. As with all otherpost-Soviet states, Georgia faced a severe economic collapse. The civil war and military conflicts in South Ossetia and Abkhazia aggravated the crisis. The agriculture and industry output diminished. By 1994 the gross domestic product had shrunk to a quarter of that of 1989.[281]
Since the early 21st century visible positive developments have been observed in the economy of Georgia. In 2007, Georgia'sreal GDP growth rate reached 12 per cent, making Georgia one of the fastest-growing economies in Eastern Europe. Georgia has become moreintegrated into the global trading network: its 2015 imports and exports account for 50% and 21% of GDP respectively.[282] Georgia's main imports are vehicles, ores, fossil fuels and pharmaceuticals. Main exports are ores, ferro-alloys, vehicles, wines, mineral waters and fertilizers.[283][284] The World Bank dubbed Georgia "the number one economic reformer in the world" because it has in one year improved from rank 112th to 18th in terms ofease of doing business,[285] and by 2020 further improved its position to 6th in the world.[286] As of 2021, it ranked 12th in the world foreconomic freedom. In 2019, Georgia ranked 61st on theHuman Development Index (HDI). Between 2000 and 2019, Georgia's HDI score improved by 17.7%.[287] Of factors contributing to HDI, education had the most positive influence[288] as Georgiaranks in the top quintile in terms of education.
Since coming to power the Saakashvili administration accomplished a series of reforms aimed at improving tax collection. Among other things aflat income tax was introduced in 2004.[290] As a result, budget revenues have increased fourfold and a once largebudget deficit has turned into asurplus.[291][292]
As of 2001, 54 per cent of the population lived below the national poverty line but by 2006 poverty decreased to 34 per cent and by 2015 to 10.1 per cent.[293] In 2015, the average monthly income of a household was 1,022.3₾ (about$426).[294] 2015 calculations place Georgia'snominal GDP at US$13.98 billion.[295] Georgia's economy is becoming more devoted toservices (as of 2016[update], representing 59.4 per cent of GDP), moving away from theagricultural sector (6.1 per cent).[296] Since 2014, unemployment has been gradually decreasing each year but remained in double digits and worsened during theCOVID-19 pandemic.[297] A perception of economic stagnation led to a 2019 survey of 1,500 residents finding unemployment was considered a significant problem by 73% of respondents, with 49% reporting their income had decreased over the prior year.[298]
Georgia's telecommunications infrastructure is ranked the last among its bordering neighbors in the World Economic Forum'sNetwork Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. Georgia ranked number 58 overall in the 2016 NRI ranking,[299] up from 60 in 2015.[300] Georgia was ranked 57th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[301]
Gudauri is the most visited ski resort of Georgia.
Tourism is an increasingly significant part of the Georgian economy. In 2016, over 2.7 million tourists brought approximately US$2.16 billion to the country.[302] In 2019, the number of international arrivals reached a record high of 9.3 million people.[303] with foreign exchange income in the year's first three-quarters amounting to over US$3 billion. The country plans to host 11 million visitors by 2025 with annual revenues reaching US$6.6 billion.[304] According to the government, there are 103 resorts in differentclimatic zones in Georgia. Tourist attractions include more than 2,000mineral springs, over 12,000 historical and cultural monuments, four of which are recognized asUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites (Bagrati Cathedral inKutaisi andGelati Monastery, historical monuments ofMtskheta, andUpper Svaneti).[305] Other tourist attractions areCave City,Ananuri Castle/Church,Sighnaghi andMount Kazbek. In 2018, more than 1.4 million tourists from Russia visited Georgia.[306]
TheGeorgian Railways represent a vital artery linking the Black Sea andCaspian Sea – the shortest route between Europe and Central Asia.
Today, transport in Georgia is provided byrail, road, ferry, and air. The total length ofroads in Georgia, excluding theoccupied territories, is 21,110 kilometres (13,120 mi) and railways – 1,576 km (979 mi).[307] Positioned in the Caucasus and on the coast of the Black Sea, Georgia is a key country through which energy imports to the European Union from neighboring Azerbaijan pass.[citation needed]
In recent years, Georgia has invested large amounts of money in the modernization of its transport networks. The construction of new highways has been prioritized and, as such, major cities like Tbilisi have seen the quality of their roads improve dramatically; despite this, however, the quality of inter-city routes remains poor and to date only one motorway-standard road has been constructed – theს 1 (S1), the main east–west highway through the country.
The Georgian railways represent an important transport artery for the Caucasus, as they make up the largest proportion of a route linking the Black andCaspian Seas. In turn, this has allowed them to benefit in recent years from increased energy exports from neighbouring Azerbaijan to the European Union, Ukraine, and Turkey.[308] Passenger services are operated by the state-ownedGeorgian Railway while freight operations are carried out by a number of licensed operators. Since 2004, the Georgian Railways have been undergoing a rolling programme of fleet-renewal and managerial restructuring which is aimed at making the service provided more efficient and comfortable for passengers.[309] Infrastructural development has also been high on the agenda for the railways, with the key Tbilisi railway junction expected to undergo major reorganization in the near future.[310] Additional projects also include the construction of the economically importantKars–Tbilisi–Baku railway, which was opened on 30 October 2017 and connects much of the Caucasus with Turkey bystandard gauge railway.[311][312]
Air and maritime transport is developing in Georgia, with the former mainly used by passengers and the latter for transport of freight. Georgia currently has four international airports, the largest of which is by farTbilisi International Airport, hub forGeorgian Airways, which offers connections to many large European cities. Other airports in the country are largely underdeveloped or lack scheduled traffic, although, as of late, efforts have been made to solve both these problems.[313] There are a number of seaports along Georgia's Black Sea coast, the largest and most busy of which is the Port of Batumi; while the town is itself a seaside resort, the port is a major cargo terminal in the Caucasus and is often used by neighbouring Azerbaijan as a transit point for making energy deliveries to Europe. Scheduled and chartered passenger ferry services link Georgia with Bulgaria,[314] Romania, Turkey and Ukraine.[315]
Ethno-linguistic groups in the Caucasus region as of 1995[316]
Like most nativeCaucasian peoples, the Georgians do not fit into any of the main ethnic categories of Europe or Asia. The Georgian language, the most pervasive of theKartvelian languages, is notIndo-European,Turkic, orSemitic. The present-day Georgian or Kartvelian nation is thought to have resulted from the fusion ofindigenous inhabitants with various immigrants who moved intoSouth Caucasus fromAnatolia in remote antiquity.[317]
The population of Georgia totaled 3,688,647 as of 2022,[318][e] a decrease from 3,713,804 in the previous census in October 2014.[319][e] The population declined by 40,000 in 2021, a reversal of the trend towards stabilization of the last decade and, for the first time since independence, the population was recorded to be below 3.7 million. According to the 2014 census,Ethnic Georgians form about 86.8 percent of the population, while the remainder includes ethnic groups such asAbkhazians,Armenians,Assyrians,Azerbaijanis,Greeks,Jews,Kists,Ossetians,Russians,Ukrainians,Yezidis and others.[319][e] TheGeorgian Jews are one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world. According to the 1926 census there were 27,728 Jews in Georgia.[320][f] Georgia was also once home to significant ethnic German communities, numbering 11,394 according to the 1926 census.[320][g] Most of themwere deported during World War II.[323]
The 2014 census, carried out in collaboration with theUnited Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), found a population gap of approximately 700,000 compared to the 2014 data from the National Statistical Office of Georgia, Geostat, which was cumulatively built on the 2002 census. Consecutive research estimated the 2002 census to be inflated by 8 to 9 percent,[324] which affected the annually updated population estimates in subsequent years. One explanation put forward by UNFPA is that families of emigrants continued to list them in 2002 as residents for fear of losing certain rights or benefits. Also, the population registration system from birth to death was non-functional. It was not until around 2010 that parts of the system became reliable again. With the support of the UNFPA, the demographic data for the period 1994–2014 has been retro-projected.[325] On the basis of that back-projection, Geostat has corrected its data for these years.
The 1989 census recorded 341,000 ethnicRussians, or 6.3 percent of the population,[326] 52,000Ukrainians and 100,000Greeks in Georgia.[327] The population of Georgia, including the breakaway regions, has declined by more than 1 million due to net emigration in the period 1990–2010.[328][327] Other factors in the population decline include birth-death deficits for the period 1995–2010 and the exclusion of Abkhazia and South Ossetia from the statistics. Russia received by far the most migrants from Georgia. According to United Nations data, this totaled 625,000 by 2000, declining to 450,000 by 2019.[329] Initially, the out-migration was driven by non-Georgian ethnicities, but increasing numbers of Georgians emigrated as well,[330] due to the war, the crisis-ridden 1990s, and the subsequent bad economic outlook. The 2010 Russian census recorded about 158,000 ethnic Georgians living in Russia,[331] with approximately 40,000 living in Moscow by 2014.[332] There were 184 thousand immigrants in Georgia in 2014 with most of them hailing from Russia (51.6%), Greece (8.3%), Ukraine (8.11%), Germany (4.3%), and Armenia (3.8%).[333][e]
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index, Georgia is one of 22 countries with a GHI score of less than 5. Differences between their scores are minimal. With a score under 5, Georgia has a level of hunger that is low.[337]
The most widespread language group is theKartvelian family, which includes Georgian,Svan,Mingrelian andLaz.[338][339][340][341][342][343] The official language of Georgia isGeorgian, withAbkhaz having official status within the autonomous region of Abkhazia. Georgian is the primary language of 87.7 per cent of the population, followed by 6.2 per cent speakingAzerbaijani, 3.9 per centArmenian, 1.2 per cent Russian, and 1 per cent other languages.[344][e] Azerbaijani once served as alingua franca for communication among various nationalities inhabiting Eastern Caucasus.[322]
The special status of the Georgian Orthodox Church is officially recognized in the Constitution of Georgia and theConcordat of 2002, although religious institutions are separate from the state.[citation needed]
Religious minorities of Georgia include Muslims (10.7 percent),Armenian Christians (2.9 percent) and Roman Catholics (0.5 percent).[345][e] 0.7 percent of those recorded in the 2014 census declared themselves to be adherents of other religions, 1.2 percent refused or did not state their religion and 0.5 percent declared no religion at all.[345]
Islam is represented by both AzerbaijaniShia Muslims (in the south-east), ethnic GeorgianSunni Muslims in Adjara, Chechen sub-ethnic group of SunniKists in the Pankisi Gorge, andLaz-speaking Sunni Muslims as well as SunniMeskhetian Turks along the border with Turkey. In Abkhazia, a minority of the Abkhaz population is also Sunni Muslim. There are also smaller communities ofGreek Muslims (ofPontic Greek origin) andArmenian Muslims, both of whom are descended from Ottoman-era converts to Turkish Islam fromEastern Anatolia who settled in Georgia following theLala Mustafa Pasha's Caucasian campaign that led to the Ottoman conquest of the country in 1578. Georgian Jews trace the history of their community to the 6th century BC[350] but due to immigration to Israel, by early 2000s their numbers had dwindled to several thousand.[351][352]
Despite the long history of religious harmony in Georgia,[353] there have been instances of religious discrimination and violence against "nontraditional faiths", such asJehovah's Witnesses, by followers of thedefrocked Orthodox priestBasil Mkalavishvili.[354]
In addition to traditional religious organizations, Georgia retainssecular and irreligious segments of society (0.5 percent),[355] as well as a significant portion of religiously affiliated individuals who do not actively practice their faith.[356]
The education system of Georgia has undergone sweeping, though controversial, modernization since 2004.[357][358]Education in Georgia is mandatory for all children aged 6–14.[359] The school system is divided into elementary (six years; ages 6–12), basic (three years; ages 12–15), and secondary (three years; ages 15–18), or alternatively vocational studies (two years). Access to higher education is given to students who have gained a secondary school certificate. Only those students who have passed the Unified National Examinations may enroll in a state-accredited higher education institution, based on ranking of the scores received at the exams.[360]
Most of these institutions offer three levels of study: a bachelor's programme (three to four years); a master's programme (two years), and a doctoral programme (three years). There is also a certified specialist's programme that represents a single-level higher education programme lasting from three to six years.[359][361] As of 2016[update], 75 higher education institutions are accredited by the Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia.[362]Gross primary enrolment ratio was 117 percent for the period of 2012–2014, the 2nd highest in Europe after Sweden.[363]
Tbilisi has become the main artery of the Georgian educational system, particularly since the creation of theFirst Georgian Republic in 1918 permitted the establishment of modern, Georgian-language educational institutions. Tbilisi is home to several major institutions of higher education in Georgia, notably theTbilisi State Medical University, which was founded as Tbilisi Medical Institute in 1918, and theTbilisi State University (TSU), which was established in 1918 and remains the oldest university in the entire Caucasus region.[364] The number of faculty and staff (collaborators) at TSU is approximately 5,000, with over 35,000 students enrolled. The following four universities are also located in Tbilisi:Georgian Technical University,[365] which is Georgia's main and largest technical university,The University of Georgia (Tbilisi),[366] as well asCaucasus University[367] andFree University of Tbilisi.[368]
This long history has provided a national narrative which encompasses the successful preservation of unique culture and identity in a consistent territory, despite external pressures. Christianity and the Georgian language are particularly important national identifiers.[376] These cultural, religious, and later political attributes are associated with a European and Western identity, based on a national perception of these attributes that contrasts with surrounding powers.[375][376][377][378] This self-identity is stronger among the dominant ethnic Georgian population than in the country's minority groups.[378]
Georgianecclesiastic art is one of the most notable aspects of GeorgianChristian architecture, which combines the classicaldome style with the originalbasilica style, forming what is known as the Georgian cross-dome style. Cross-dome architecture developed in Georgia during the 9th century; before that, most Georgian churches were basilicas. Other examples of Georgianecclesiastic architecture can be found outside Georgia:Bachkovo Monastery in Bulgaria (built in 1083 by the Georgian military commander Grigorii Bakuriani),Iviron monastery in Greece (built by Georgians in the 10th century), and theMonastery of the Cross in Jerusalem (built by Georgians in the 9th century). One of the most famous late 19th/early 20th century Georgian artists wasprimitivist painterNiko Pirosmani.[380]
Television, magazines, and newspapers in Georgia are all operated by both state-owned and for-profit corporations which depend on advertising,subscription, and other sales-related revenues. TheConstitution of Georgia guarantees freedom of speech.[citation needed] The media environment of Georgia remains the freest and most diverse in theSouth Caucasus,[383] despite the long-term politicization and polarization affecting the sector. The political struggle for control over the public broadcaster has left it without a direction in 2014 too.[384]
Georgia has an ancient musical tradition, which is primarily known for its early development ofpolyphony. Georgian polyphony is based on three vocal parts, a unique tuning system based on perfect fifths, and a harmonic structure rich in parallel fifths and dissonances.[citation needed] Three types of polyphony have developed in Georgia: a complex version in Svaneti, a dialogue over a bass background in the Kakheti region, and a three-part partially improvised version in western Georgia.[385] The Georgian folk song "Chakrulo" was one of 27 musical compositions included on theVoyager Golden Records that were sent into space onVoyager 2 on 20 August 1977.[386]
Rather than serving food incourses, traditionalsupras often present all that a host has to offer.
Georgian cuisine andwine have evolved through the centuries, adapting traditions in each era. One of the most unusual traditions of dining issupra, orGeorgian table, which is also a way of socializing with friends and family. The head ofsupra is known astamada. He also conducts the highly philosophical toasts, and makes sure that everyone is enjoying themselves. Various historical regions of Georgia are known for their particular dishes: for example,khinkali (meat dumplings), from eastern mountainous Georgia, andkhachapuri, mainly fromImereti,Samegrelo and Adjara.[387]
Rkatsitelikvevri wine in a glass. Wine-making is a traditional component of the Georgian economy.
Georgia isone of the oldest wine-producing countries in the world. Archaeology indicates that fertile valleys and slopes in and around Georgia have been home tograpevine cultivation andneolithic wine production (Georgian:ღვინო,ɣvino) for millennia.[388][389][390][391] Local traditions associated with wine are entwined with its national identity.[388] In 2013,UNESCO added the ancient traditional Georgian winemaking method using theKvevri clay jars to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists.[388][392]
Georgia's moderate climate and moist air, influenced by theBlack Sea, provide the best conditions for vine cultivation. The soil in vineyards is so intensively cultivated that the grapevines grow up the trunks of fruit trees, eventually hanging down along the fruit when they ripen. This method of cultivation is calledmaglari.[393] Among the best-known Georgian wine regions areKakheti (further divided into the micro-regions ofTelavi andKvareli),Kartli,Imereti,Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti,Adjara and Abkhazia.
Georgian wine has been a contentious issue in recent relationships with Russia.Political tensions with Russia have contributed to the 2006Russian embargo of Georgian wine, Russia claimed Georgia producedcounterfeit wine. It was an "official" reason, but the instability of economic relations with Russia is well known, as they use the economic ties for political purposes.[394] Counterfeiting problems stem from mislabelling by foreign producers and falsified "Georgian Wine" labels on wines produced outside of Georgia and imported into Russia under the auspices of being Georgian produced.[394] The shipment of counterfeit wine has been primarily channelled throughRussian managed customs checkpoints in Russian-occupied Georgian territories Abkhazia and South Ossetia, where no inspection and regulation occurs.[394]
The most popular sports in Georgia arefootball, basketball,rugby union,wrestling, judo, andweightlifting. Rugby is considered Georgia's national sport.[395] Historically, Georgia has been famous for its physical education; theRomans were fascinated with Georgians' physical qualities after seeing the training techniques of ancientIberia.[396] Wrestling remains a historically important sport of Georgia, and some historians think that theGreco-Roman style of wrestling incorporates many Georgian elements.[397]
Within Georgia, one of the most popularized styles of wrestling is the Kakhetian style. There were a number of other styles in the past that are not as widely used today. For example, theKhevsureti region of Georgia has three styles of wrestling. Other popular sports in 19th century Georgia werepolo, andLelo, a traditional Georgian game very similar torugby.[398]
The first and only race circuit in the Caucasian region is located in Georgia.Rustavi International Motorpark originally built in 1978, was re-opened in 2012 after total reconstruction[399] costing $20 million. The track satisfies theFIA Grade 2 requirements and currently hosts theLegends car racing series and Formula Alfa competitions.[400]
Georgian athletes have won a total of 40 Olympic medals, mostly in wrestling, judo and weightlifting.[401] Competitive bodybuilding sanctioned by the EuropeanIFBB is also popular in the country.[402]
^abcAs result of the2024 Georgian parliamentary election and the subsequentconstitutional crisis, key political positions and the legitimacy of Georgia's parliament have been disputed. Opposition forces have contested the legitimacy of Kavelashvili, and the outgoing presidentSalome Zourabichvili has claimed to continue to be legitimate president.[5][6][7] Also, international platforms have disputed the legitimacy of thede facto Georgian authorities after the 2024 elections, including theEuropean Parliament.[8]
^Histories 4.38. C.f. James Rennell,The geographical system of Herodotus examined and explained, Volume 1, Rivington 1830,p. 244
^Encyclopedia Britannica",Caucasus, June 2021: "One widely accepted scheme draws the dividing line along the crest of the Greater Caucasus range, putting the portion of the region north of the line in Europe and the portion south of it in Asia. Another puts the western portion of the Caucasus region in Europe and the eastern part (the bulk of Azerbaijan and small portions of Armenia, Georgia, and Russia's Caspian Sea coast) in Asia..."
^Nana Bolashvili, Andreas Dittmann, Lorenz King, Vazha Neidze (eds.): ``National Atlas of Georgia``, 138 pages, Steiner Verlag, 2018,ISBN978-3-515-12057-9
^abJones, Stephen (27 October 2020). "The establishment of Soviet power in Transcaucasia: The case of Georgia 1921–1928".Soviet Studies.40 (4): 627.doi:10.1080/09668138808411783.
^"Constitution of Georgia". The Legislative Herald of Georgia. 29 June 2020. Article 1.1, 7.2, 45, 52 and 54. Archived fromthe original on 27 October 2023. Retrieved25 March 2022.
^Rapp, Stephen H. (2003),Studies in Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts And Eurasian Contexts, pp. 419–423. Peeters Publishers,ISBN90-429-1318-5
^"Article 2.1",Constitution of Georgia, Legislative Herald of Georgia, archived fromthe original on 27 October 2023, retrieved25 March 2022,'Georgia' is the name of the state of Georgia.
^Roebroeks, Wil (1993).The Earliest Occupation of Europe. Leiden: Modderman Stichting / Faculty of Archaeology – Leiden University. pp. 207–209.ISBN9789073368071.
^Tsotskolauri, Avtandil (2017).საქართველოს ისტორია. Tbilisi: Saunje. pp. 12–17.ISBN978-9941-451-79-9.
^Javakhishvili, Ivane (1950).Historical-Ethnological problems of Georgia, the Caucasus and the Near East. Tbilisi: Tbilisi State University. pp. 130–135.
^Ivana Marková; Alex Gillespie, eds. (2011).Trust and Conflict: Representation, Culture and Dialogue. Cultural Dynamics of Social Representation. p. 43.ISBN978-0-415-59346-5.
^Howard Aronson; Dodona Kiziria (1999).Georgian Literature and Culture. Slavica. p. 119.ISBN978-0-89357-278-5.
^Suny, Ronald Grigor (1996).Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. DIANE Publishing. p. 184.ISBN978-0-7881-2813-4.Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved1 December 2017.The Knight in the Panther Skin occupies a unique position as the Georgian national epic.
^Cornell, Svante E. (2002),Autonomy and Conflict: Ethnoterritoriality and Separatism in the South Caucasus: Cases in Georgia, pp. 146–149.Uppsala University, Department of Peace and Conflict Research,ISBN91-506-1600-5
^Darrell Slider (1991). "Georgia's independence".Problems of Communism: November—December 1991. Vol. 15. Documentary Studies Section, International Information Administration. p. 66.The April 9 "Tragedy", as it came to be called, had a searing effect on Georgian public. The republic leadership lost what authority it had enjoyed in the eyes of Georgians, and support for independence became overwhelming— developments confirmed by polls initiated by the Communist leadership itself.
^"Report. Volume I"(PDF). Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia. September 2009. p. 27. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 7 October 2009.
^'Caucasus (region and mountains, Eurasia)'Archived 27 April 2010 at theWayback Machine.Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010: "Occupying roughly 170,000 sq mi (440,000 km2), it is divided among Russia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia and forms part of the traditional dividing line between Europe and Asia. It is bisected by the Caucasus Mountains; the area north of the Greater Caucasus range is called Ciscaucasia and the region to the south Transcaucasia. Inhabited from ancient times, it was under nominal Persian and Turkish suzerainty until conquered by Russia in the 18th–19th centuries."
^Berry, Lynn (7 January 2008)."Georgia Leader: Country on Right Track". Fox News. Archived fromthe original on 8 January 2008. Retrieved17 October 2008.In an interview with The Associated Press, Saakashvili acknowledged Georgia's path had not been smooth but said the election demonstrated that the former Soviet republic was on the road to becoming a European democracy.
^"Georgia: Freedom in the World 2022 Country Report".Freedom House. Retrieved5 February 2023.Georgia holds regular and competitive elections. Its democratic trajectory showed signs of improvement during the period surrounding a change in government in 2012–13, but recent years have featured backsliding. Oligarchic influence affects the country's political affairs, policy decisions, and media environment, and the rule of law is undermined by politicization. Civil liberties are inconsistently protected.
^European Parliament,Resolution 2014/2717(RSP), 17 July 2014: "...pursuant to Article 49 of the Treaty on European Union, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine – like any other European state – have a European perspective and may apply to become members of the Union…"
^"Networked Readiness Index 2016".Global Information Technology Report 2016. World Economic Forum.Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved21 December 2016.
^"Global Hunger Index Scores by 2024 GHI Rank".Global Hunger Index (GHI) - peer-reviewed annual publication designed to comprehensively measure and track hunger at the global, regional, and country levels. Retrieved18 December 2024.
^Constantine B. Lerner. "The Wellspring of Georgian Historiography: The Early Medieval Historical Chronicle The Conversion of Katli and The Life of St. Nino", England: Bennett and Bloom, London, 2004, p. 60
^Kennan, Hans Dieter; et al. (2013).Vagabond Life: The Caucasus Journals of George Kennan. University of Washington Press. p. 32.(...) Iranian power and cultural influence dominated eastern Georgia until the coming of the Russians
^Goldstein, Darra (1958).The Georgian feast: the vibrant culture and savory food of the Republic of Georgia. US: University of California Press. p. 4.ISBN0-520-21929-5.
^Romans erected the statue of the Iberian King Pharsman after he demonstrated Georgian training methods during his visit to Rome;Cassius Dio,Roman History, LXIX, 15.3
Avalov, Zurab (1906).Prisoedinenie Gruzii k Rossii. S.-Peterburg: Montvid.
Boeder, W. (2002). "Speech and thought representation in the Kartvelian (South Caucasian) languages". In Güldemann, T.; von Roncador, M. (eds.).Reported Discourse. A Meeting-Ground of Different Linguistic Domains. Typological Studies in Language. Vol. 52. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. pp. 3–48.
Eastmond, Antony (2010).Royal Imagery in Medieval Georgia. Penn State Press.ISBN978-0-271-01628-3.
Fähnrich, H.; Sardzhveladze, Z. (2000).Etymological Dictionary of the Kartvelian Languages (in Georgian). Tbilisi.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
"The Transcaucasian Soviet Federation".Russian Review.3 (24). Washington, D.C.: The Russian Information Bureau:496–499. 15 December 1925. Retrieved20 April 2022.
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