| Saint Olaf | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Coin of Olaf dated 1023–28 | |||||
| King of Norway | |||||
| Reign | 1015–1028 | ||||
| Predecessor | Sweyn Forkbeard | ||||
| Successor | Cnut the Great | ||||
| Born | c. 995 Ringerike,Norway | ||||
| Died | 29 July 1030 (aged around 35) Stiklestad, Norway | ||||
| Spouse | Astrid Olofsdotter of Sweden | ||||
| Issue | Wulfhild, Duchess of Saxony Magnus I of Norway (ill.) | ||||
| |||||
| House | St. Olaf | ||||
| Father | Harald Grenske | ||||
| Mother | Åsta Gudbrandsdatter | ||||
| Religion | Chalcedonian Christianity | ||||
Saint Olaf (c. 995 – 29 July 1030), also calledOlaf the Holy,Olaf II,Olaf Haraldsson, andOlaf the Stout,[1] wasKing of Norway from 1015 to 1028. Son ofHarald Grenske, apetty king inVestfold, Norway,[2] he was posthumously given the titleRex Perpetuus Norvegiae (English:Eternal/Perpetual King of Norway) andcanonised atNidaros (Trondheim) by BishopGrimketel, one year after his death in theBattle of Stiklestad on 29 July 1030. His remains were enshrined inNidaros Cathedral, built over his burial site. His sainthood encouraged the widespread adoption ofChristianity byScandinavia'sVikings/Norsemen.
Pope Alexander III confirmed Olaf's local canonisation in 1164, making him a recognised saint of theCatholic Church, and Olaf started to be known asRex Perpetuus Norvegiae –eternal king of Norway. Following theReformation, he was a commemorated historical figure among some members of theLutheran and Anglican Communions.[3]
The saga of Olav Haraldsson and the legend of Olaf the Saint became central to a national identity. Especially during the period ofromantic nationalism, Olaf was a symbol of Norwegian independence and pride. Saint Olaf is symbolised by the axe inNorway's coat of arms andOlsok (29 July) is still his day of celebration. Many Christian institutions with Scandinavian links as well as Norway'sOrder of St. Olav are named after him.[4]
Olaf'sOld Norse name isÓláfr Haraldsson[ˈoːlɑːvz̠ˈhɑrɑldsˌson]. During his lifetime he was known as Olaf "the fat" or "the stout"[5] or simply as Olaf "the big" (Ólafr digri[ˈdiɣre]; Modern NorwegianOlav Digre).[6] He was also called Olaf 'the Lawbreaker' for his many brutal ways of converting the Norwegian populace. In modern Norway he is commonly calledOlav den hellige (Bokmål; Olaf the Holy) orHeilag-Olav (Nynorsk; the Holy Olaf) in recognition of his sainthood.
Olaf Haraldsson had the given nameÓláfr inOld Norse (etymology:Anu- "forefather", -laibaR—"heir").Olav is the modern equivalent inNorwegian, formerly often speltOlaf. His name inIcelandic isÓlafur[ˈouːlaːvʏr̥], inFaroeseÓlavur, inDanishOlav, inSwedishOlof, and inFinnishOlavi. Olave was the traditional spelling in England, preserved in the name of medieval churches dedicated to him. Other names, such asÓláfr hinn helgi,Olavus rex, and Olaf are used interchangeably (see theHeimskringla ofSnorri Sturluson). He is sometimes calledRex Perpetuus Norvegiae (English:"Norway's Eternal King"), a designation which goes back to the 13th century.[7]
Olaf Haraldsson is attested having been born inRingerike,[8] yet Ringerike must not be conflated with the modern notion of the district named after the legendary Ringerike ofIvar Vidfamne and Sigurd Hring, which may be regarded as the confederation of five petty kingdoms conferring with the five kings that established Olaf Haraldson as their High King at Hringsakri according to Saint Olafs Saga, King Hrœrekr, King Guðrøðr, King Hring and two others of less certain identity. Olaf Haraldsson did not become King of Norway until theBattle of Nesjar.
Olaf Haraldsson was the son ofÅsta Gudbrandsdatter andHarald Grenske, apetty king inVestfold.[9] According to later Icelandic sagas, Harald Grenske was the son ofGudrød Bjørnsson, son of KingBjørn Farmann in Vestfold, who was in turn son of KingHarald I Fairhair Halvdansson. The latter had unified Norway as one Kingdom, establishing a feudalist structure with the kingship far less dependent on local rulers. Thus, according to the sagas, Olaf was a great-great-grandson in the male line of the founder of the Norwegian kingdom. Harald Grenske died when Åsta Gudbrandsdatter was pregnant with Olaf. Åsta later marriedSigurd Syr, with whom she had other children, includingHarald Hardrada, who later reigned as king of Norway.[10]
The petty kings of Ringerike seem to have had some claims to the High Kingship of the Commonwealth of Uppsala posing a possible threat to the royalHouse of Munsö under King Olof Skötkonung. TheEarls of Hlaðir and the petty kings of Hringerike had been in conflict since at least King Harald Fairhair assumed power of all of Norway.
Many texts have information about Olaf Haraldsson.[11] The oldest is theGlælognskviða or "Sea-Calm Poem", composed byÞórarinn loftunga, an Icelander. It praises Olaf and mentions some of the famous miracles attributed to him. The Norwegian synoptic histories also mention Olaf. These include theÁgrip af Nóregskonungasögum (c. 1190), theHistoria Norwegiae (c. 1160–1175) and a Latin text,Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium byTheodoric the Monk (c. 1177–1188).[12]
Icelanders also wrote extensively about Olaf and there are several Icelandic sagas about him, includingFagrskinna (c. 1220) andMorkinskinna (c. 1225–1235).Heimskringla (c. 1225), bySnorri Sturluson, largely bases its account of Olaf on the earlierFagrskinna. The sources seem to say that he had been raised in the Norse pagan religion, but converted to Christ early in his adulthood. TheOldest Saga of St. Olaf (c. 1200) is important to scholars for its constant use ofskaldic verses, many of which are attributed to Olaf himself.[12]
Finally, manyhagiographic sources describe St. Olaf, but these focus mostly on miracles attributed to him and cannot be used to accurately recreate his life. A notable one isThe Passion and the Miracles of the Blessed Olafr.[13]
A widely used account of Olaf's life is found inHeimskringla fromc. 1225. Although its facts are dubious, the saga recounts Olaf's deeds as follows:
In 1008, Olaf landed on theEstonian island ofSaaremaa (Osilia). TheOsilians, taken by surprise, had at first agreed to Olaf's demands, but then gathered an army during the negotiations and attacked the Norwegians. Olaf nevertheless won the battle.[14]
It is said that Olaf participated alongside fellow VikingThorkell the Tall in thesiege of Canterbury in 1011.[15]
Olaf sailed to the southern coast ofFinland sometime in 1008.[16][17][18] The journey resulted in theBattle at Herdaler, where Olaf and his men were ambushed by theFinns in the woods. Olaf lost many men but made it back to his boats. He ordered his ships to depart despite a rising storm. The Finns pursued them and made the same progress on land as Olaf and his men made on water. Despite these events they survived. The exact location of the battle is uncertain and the Finnish equivalent of Herdaler is unknown, but it has been suggested that it could be inUusimaa, probably near present-dayIngå.[19]
As a teenager Olaf went to theBaltic, then toDenmark and later toEngland. Skaldic poetry suggests he led a successful seaborne attack that took downLondon Bridge, though Anglo-Saxon sources do not confirm this. This may have been in 1014, restoring London and the English throne toÆthelred the Unready and removing Cnut.[20] According to Snorri'sHeimskringla, the attack happened soon after the death ofSweyn Forkbeard with the city being held by Danish forces. Snorri's account claims that Olaf assisted Æthelred in driving the Danes out of England. Olaf is also said by Snorri to have aided the sons of Æthelred after his death. Olaf is said to have won battles but been unable to assist Æthelred's sons in driving Cnut out. After this, he set his sights on Norway.
Olaf saw it as his calling to unite Norway into one kingdom, asHarald Fairhair had largely succeeded in doing. On the way home he wintered with DukeRichard II of Normandy. MaraudingVikings had conquered this region in 881. Richard was himself an ardent Christian, and theNormans had also previously converted to Christianity. Before leaving, Olaf was baptised inRouen[8] in the pre-RomanesqueNotre-Dame Cathedral by Richard's brotherRobert the Dane, archbishop of Normandy.
Olaf returned to Norway in 1015 and declared himself king, obtaining the support of the fivepetty kings of theNorwegian Uplands.[21] In 1016 at theBattle of Nesjar he defeatedEarl Sweyn, one of theearls of Lade and hitherto thede facto ruler of Norway. He founded the town of Borg, later known asSarpsborg, by the waterfallSarpsfossen inØstfold county. Within a few years he had won more power than any of his predecessors on the throne had enjoyed.
Olaf annihilated the petty kings of the south, subdued the aristocracy, asserted hissuzerainty in theOrkney Islands, and conducted a successful raid on Denmark.[21] He made peace with KingOlof Skötkonung ofSweden throughÞorgnýr the Lawspeaker, and was for some time engaged to Olof's daughter,Ingegerd, though without Olof's approval. In 1019 Olaf marriedAstrid Olofsdotter, King Olof's illegitimate daughter and the half-sister of his former fiancée. The union produced a daughter,Wulfhild, who marriedOrdulf, Duke of Saxony in 1042.[22]
In 1026 he participated in theBattle of the Helgeå. In 1029 the Norwegian nobles, seething with discontent, supportedthe invasion of KingCnut the Great of Denmark. Olaf was driven into exile inKievan Rus.[21][8] He stayed for some time in the Swedish province ofNerike, where, according to local legend, he baptised many locals. In 1029, King Cnut's Norwegian regent, JarlHåkon Eiriksson, was lost at sea and Olaf seized the opportunity to win back the kingdom. Given military and logistical support by the Swedish kingAnund Jacob he tried to bypass the formidable "Øresundfleet" of the Danish king by traveling across theJämtland-mountains to take Nidaros, the Norwegian capital at the time, in 1030. However, Olaf was killed inBattle of Stiklestad on 29 July 1030,[23] where some of his own subjects from central and northern Norway took arms against him. The exact position of Saint Olaf's grave in Nidaros has been unknown since 1568, due to the effects of theLutheran iconoclasm in 1536–37.
King Cnut, though distracted by the task of governing England, ruled Norway for five years after Stiklestad, with his sonSvein and Svein's motherÆlfgifu (known asÁlfífa in Old Norse sources) as regents. But their regency was unpopular, and when Olaf's illegitimate sonMagnus ('the Good') laid claim to the Norwegian throne, Svein and Ælfgifu were forced to flee.
Olaf has traditionally been seen as leading theChristianisation of Norway, but most scholars of the period now believe that Olaf had little to do with the process. Olaf brought with himGrimketel, who is usually credited with helping him create episcopal sees and further organising the Norwegian church, but Grimketel was only a member of Olaf's household and no permanent sees were created until c. 1100. Also, Olaf and Grimketel most likely did not introduce new ecclesiastical laws to Norway; these were ascribed to Olaf at a later date. Olaf most likely did try to bring Christianity to the interior of Norway, where it was less prevalent.[24]
Questions have also been raised about the nature of Olaf's Christianity.[25] Modern historians generally agree[26] that Olaf was inclined to violence and brutality, and note that earlier scholars often neglected this side of his character. It seems that, like many Scandinavian kings, Olaf used his Christianity to gain more power for the monarchy and centralise control in Norway. The skaldic verses attributed to Olaf do not speak of Christianity at all, but usepagan references to describe romantic relationships.[12][27]
In his bookThe Conversion of Scandinavia, Anders Winroth argues that there was a "long process of assimilation, in which the Scandinavians adopted, one by one and over time, individual Christian practices."[28] Winroth does not claim that Olaf was not Christian, but argues that we cannot think of any Scandinavians as fully converting as portrayed in the later hagiographies or sagas. Olaf himself is portrayed in later sources as a saintly miracle-working figure to help support this quick view of conversion for Norway, but the historical Olaf did not act this way, as seen especially in the skaldic verses attributed to him.
Olaf | |
|---|---|
 Saint Olaf of Norway, by Pius Welonsky (1893) inSant'Ambrogio e Carlo al Corso, Rome. | |
| Martyr andPerpetual King of Norway | |
| Venerated in | Catholic Church,Eastern Orthodox Church,Lutheranism,Anglicanism |
| Beatified | 1031 byGrimketel |
| Canonized | 1164 byPope Alexander III |
| Majorshrine | St. Olav's shrine,Nidaros Cathedral,Trondheim,Norway |
| Feast | 29 July |
| Attributes | Axe Crown |
| Patronage | Norway,Faroe Islands,Normans |
Olaf swiftly became Norway's patron saint; BishopGrimketel performed his canonisation only a year after his death.[a] The cult of Olaf unified the country and consolidated the Christianisation of Norway. He is also recognized as the patron saint of theFaroe Islands.[30][31]
Owing to Olaf's later status as Norway's patron saint, and to his importance in later medieval historiography and in Norwegian folklore, it is difficult to assess the historical Olaf's character. Judging from the bare outlines of known historical facts, he appears to have been a fairly unsuccessful ruler, whose power was based on an alliance with the much more powerful KingCnut the Great; who was driven into exile when he claimed power of his own; and whose attempt at a reconquest was swiftly crushed.
This calls for an explanation of the status he gained after his death. Three factors are important: the later myth surrounding his role in the Christianisation of Norway, the various dynastic relationships among the ruling families, and the need for legitimisation in a later period.[32]
Olaf Haraldsson andOlaf Tryggvason (Olaf Haraldsson'sgodfather) are both traditionally regarded as the driving forces behind Norway's final conversion to Christianity.[33] But large stone crosses and other Christian symbols suggest that at least Norway's coastal areas were deeply influenced by Christianity long before Olaf's time; with one exception, all of Norway's rulers sinceHåkon the Good (c. 920–961) were Christians (however Håkon later reverted to Heathenism as an apostate[citation needed]), as was Olaf's main opponent,Cnut the Great. What seems clear is that Olaf made efforts to establish a church organization on a broader scale than before, among other things by importing bishops fromEngland,Normandy andGermany, and that he tried to enforce Christianity in the inland areas, which had the least communication with the rest of Europe, and which economically were more strongly based on agriculture, so that the inclination to hold on to the former fertility cult was stronger than in the more diversified and expansive western parts of Norway.
Many believe Olaf introduced Christian law into Norway in 1024, based upon theKuli stone, but this stone is hard to interpret.[28] The codification of Christianity as the legal religion of Norway was attributed to Olaf, and his legal arrangements for the Church of Norway came to stand so high in the Norwegian people's and clergy's eyes that whenPope Gregory VII attempted to make clerical celibacy binding on the priests of Western Europe in 1074–75, Norwegians largely ignored it, since there was no mention of clerical celibacy in Olaf's legal code for their church. Only after Norway was made a metropolitan province with its own archbishop in 1153—making the Norwegian church, on the one hand, more independent of its king, but on the other hand, more directly responsible to the Pope—didcanon law gain a greater prominence in the life and jurisdiction of the Norwegian church.
For various reasons, most importantly the death of King Cnut the Great in 1035 but perhaps also a certain discontent among Norwegian nobles with Danish rule in the years after Olaf's death in 1030, Olaf's illegitimate son with the concubine Alvhild,Magnus the Good, assumed power in Norway, and eventually also in Denmark. Numerous Danish churches were dedicated to Olaf during his reign, and the sagas give glimpses of the young king's efforts to promote the cult of his deceased father. This became typical of Scandinavian monarchies. In pagan times, Scandinavian kings derived their right to rule from their claims of descent from the Norse godOdin, or in the case of the kings of the Swedes atOld Uppsala, fromFreyr. In Christian times this legitimation of a dynasty's right to rule and its national prestige was based on its descent from a saintly king. Thus the kings of Norway promoted the cult of St. Olaf, the kings of Sweden the cult ofSt. Erik and the kings of Denmark the cult ofSaint Canute, just as in England the Norman andPlantagenet kings promoted the cult ofSt. Edward the Confessor atWestminster Abbey, their coronation church.[34]
Sigrid Undset noted that Olaf was baptised inRouen, the capital ofNormandy, and suggested that Olaf may have used priests of Norman descent for his missionaries. Normans were somewhat familiar with the culture of the people they were to convert and in some cases may have been able to understand the language. Among the bishops Olaf is known to have brought with him from England wasGrimketel (Latin:Grimcillus). He was probably the only one of the missionary bishops left in the country at the time of Olaf's death, and he stood behind thetranslation andbeatification of Olaf on 3 August 1031.[a] Grimketel later became the first bishop ofSigtuna in Sweden.
At this time, local bishops and their people recognised and proclaimed a person a saint, and a formalcanonisation procedure through the papalcuria was not customary; in Olaf's case, this did not happen until 1888. But Olaf II died before theEast-West Schism and a strictRoman Rite was not well-established in Scandinavia at the time. He is also venerated in theEastern Orthodox Church.[citation needed]
Grimketel was later appointed bishop in thediocese of Selsey in southeastern England. This is probably why the earliest traces of a liturgical cult of Olaf are found in England. Anoffice, or prayer service, for Olaf is found in the so-calledLeofric collectar (c. 1050), which BishopLeofric ofExeter bequeathed in his last will and testament toExeter Cathedral. This English cult seems to have been short-lived.
Writing around 1070,Adam of Bremen mentions pilgrimage toSt. Olaf's shrine inNidaros, but this is the only firm trace we have of a cult of St. Olaf in Norway before the mid-12th century. By this time he was also being calledNorway's Eternal King. In 1152/3, Nidaros was separated from Lund as thearchbishopric of Nidaros. It is likely that whatever formal or informal veneration of Olaf as a saint may have existed in Nidaros before that was emphasised and formalised on this occasion.
Miracles performed by St. Olaf appear for the first time inÞórarinn loftunga's skaldic poemGlælognskviða, or "Sea-Calm Poem", from about 1030–34.[35] One is the killing and throwing onto a mountain of a sea serpent still visible on the cliffside.[36] Another took place on the day of his death, when a blind man regained his sight after rubbing his eyes with hands stained with Olaf's blood.
The texts used for the liturgical celebration of St. Olaf during most of the Middle Ages were probably compiled or written byEystein Erlendsson, the secondArchbishop of Nidaros (1161–1189).[b] The nine miracles reported inGlælognskviða form the core of the catalogue of miracles in this office.
St. Olaf was widely popular throughout Scandinavia. Numerous churches in Norway, Sweden, and Iceland were dedicated to him. His presence was even felt in Finland and many travelled from all over the Norse world in order to visit his shrine.[38] Apart from the early traces of a cult in England, there are only scattered references to him outside the Nordic area.
Several churches in England were dedicated to him (often asSt Olave); the name was presumably popular with Scandinavian immigrants.St Olave's Church, York, is referred to in theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle for 1055[39] as the place of burial of its founder,Earl Siward. This is generally accepted to be the earliest datable church foundation dedicated to Olaf and is further evidence of a cult of St. Olaf in the early 1050s in England.St Olave Hart Street in theCity of London is the burial place ofSamuel Pepys and his wife.Another St. Olave's Church south ofLondon Bridge gave its name toTooley Street and to theSt Olave'sPoor Law Union, later theMetropolitan Borough of Bermondsey: its workhouse inRotherhithe becameSt Olave's Hospital and then an old people's home a few hundred metres fromSt Olav's Church, which is theNorwegian Church in London. It also led to the naming ofSt Olave's Grammar School, which was established in 1571 and was in Tooley Street until 1968, when it moved toOrpington, Kent. The village ofSt Olaves in Norfolk bears the name as it is the location of the remains of a 13th-century Augustinian priory dedicated to Olaf.
St. Olaf was also, together with theMother of God, the patron saint of the chapel of theVarangians, the Scandinavian warriors who served as the bodyguard of theByzantine emperor. This church is believed to have been near the church ofHagia Irene in Constantinople. The icon of theMadonna Nicopeia,[40] presently inSt. Mark's Basilica in Venice, which is believed to have been traditionally carried into combat by the Byzantine military forces, is believed to have been kept in this chapel in times of peace. Thus St. Olaf was also the last saint venerated by both the Western and Eastern churches before theGreat Schism.
The basilica ofSant'Ambrogio e Carlo al Corso in Rome has a Chapel of St Olav. Its altarpiece contains a painting of the saint, shown as a martyr king defeating a dragon, representing victory over his pagan past. It was originally a gift presented to PopeLeo XIII in 1893 for the golden jubilee of his ordination as a bishop by Norwegian nobleman andpapal chamberlain BaronWilhelm Wedel-Jarlsberg. The chapel was restored in 1980 and reinaugurated by BishopJohn Willem Gran, bishop of theRoman Catholic Diocese of Oslo.[41]
InGermany, there used to be a shrine of St. Olaf inKoblenz. It was founded in 1463 or 1464 byHeinrich Kalteisen at his retirement home, theDominican Monastery in theAltstadt ("Old City") neighborhood of Koblenz. He was theArchbishop of Nidaros in Norway from 1452 to 1458. When he died in 1464, he was buried in front of the shrine's altar.[42] However, the shrine did not last: the Dominican Monastery was secularized in 1802 and bulldozed in 1955. Only theRokokoportal ("Rococo Portal"), built in 1754, remains to mark the spot.[43]
In theFaroe Islands, the day of St. Olaf's death is celebrated asÓlavsøka, a nation-wide holiday.[44]
Recently thepilgrimage route toNidaros Cathedral, the site of St. Olaf's tomb, has been reinstated. The route is known as The Pilgrim's Way (Pilegrimsleden). The main route, approximately 640 km long, starts in the ancient part ofOslo and heads north, alongLake Mjosa, up theGudbrandsdal Valley, overDovrefjell and down theOrkdalen Valley, ending at Nidaros Cathedral inTrondheim. A Pilgrim's Office in Oslo gives advice to pilgrims, and a Pilgrim Centre in Trondheim, under the aegis of the Cathedral, awards certificates to pilgrims when they complete their journeys. However, the relics are no longer exposed in the cathedral, and it is not sure where exactly in the cathedral crypt his remains are buried.
For centuries, Olaf figured in folk traditions as a slayer oftrolls and giants, and as a protector against malicious forces. He was said to have healing power, which attracted people to his shrine, and various springs were claimed to have sprung forth where he or his body had been.[45] Around the 12th century, folk traditions and iconography of Olaf absorbed elements of the godsThor andFreyr fromNorse mythology.[46] Like Freyr, he became associated with fertility, which led to his adoption as apatron saint by farmers, fishermen, sailors and merchants of theHanseatic League, who turned to him for good yield and protection. From Thor, he inherited the quick temper, physical strength and merits of a giant-slayer.[47]
Popular tradition also made marks in the ecclesiastical material. Early depictions of Olaf portray him as clean-shaven, but after 1200 he appears with a red beard, which may have been absorbed from Thor. ThePassio a miracule beati Olavi, the official record of Olaf's miracles, contains an episode where Olaf helps a man escape from thehuldrefolk, the "hidden people" ofNorwegian folklore.[47]
InNormandy, Saint Olaf represents an important figure and was chosen unofficially as thepatron saint of theNormans, this term mainly designating the inhabitants of continental Normandy and of theChannel Islands, but also on a larger scale the inhabitants of the formerViking territories, namely the Scandinavian countries and, even more so,Norway. This choice can be explained by the time in which Olaf lived and when the exchanges between Normandy and the Scandinavian countries were common. There were also many kinships between the inhabitants of the brand new Norman state, as illustrated by the choice of ArchbishopRobert II for the baptism of Olaf.
Thenormand flag with a Scandinavian cross, which recalls the Scandinavian origins of Normandy, has been baptized "Cross of Saint Olav" (or "Cross of Saint Olaf") in honor of the saint.
Baptized inRouen by the brother of a Duke of Normandy, a church in Rouen is dedicated to Saint-Olaf.[48] The Norwegian Saint-Olaf Church was built in 1926, rue Duguay-Trouin, near the home of the Scandinavian sailors. The Norwegian Seamen's Mission wanted to build a Lutheran place of worship for visiting sailors.
A bone from Saint Olaf's arm is kept as a relic in the crypt ofRouen Cathedral.[49]
In 2014 the city and the diocese of Rouen celebrated the millennium of the baptism of Saint Olav with the Norwegian representatives of theCatholic Church and theEvangelical Lutheran Church of Norway.[49]
In Normandy, July 29 is the occasion of local cultural festivals which generally highlight the Norse heritage ofNormandy. In some Norman parishes,Mass is celebrated on this day in honor of the saint and to mark the historical links that uniteNormandy andScandinavia.[50]
A statue of a young Olaf Haraldsson can be found erected in front of theStave Church replica in theNorway Pavilion inWalt Disney World'sEpcot.
Attribution:
This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Olaf § Olaf (II.) Haraldssön".Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 62.
Olaf the Saint Cadet branch of theFairhair dynasty Born: 995 Died: July 29 1030 | ||
| Regnal titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Vacant Title last held by Sweyn Forkbeard | King of Norway 1015–1028 | Vacant Regency held by Hákon Eiríksson Title next held by Cnut the Great |
