Showing three-masted examples, progressing from square sails on each to all fore-and-aft sails on each.
Asailing ship is a sea-going vessel that usessails mounted onmasts to harness the power of wind and propel the vessel. There is a variety ofsail plans that propel sailingships, employingsquare-rigged orfore-and-aft sails. Some ships carry square sails on each mast—thebrig andfull-rigged ship, said to be "ship-rigged" when there are three or more masts.[1] Others carry only fore-and-aft sails on each mast, for instance someschooners. Still others employ a combination of square and fore-and-aft sails, including thebarque,barquentine, andbrigantine.[2]
European sailing ships with predominantly square rigs became prevalent during theAge of Discovery (15th to 17th centuries), when they crossed oceans between continents and around the world. In the EuropeanAge of Sail, afull-rigged ship was one with a bowsprit and three masts, each of which consists of a lower, top, and topgallant mast.[5] Most sailing ships weremerchantmen, but the Age of Sail also saw the development of large fleets of well-armedwarships. The many steps of technological development ofsteamships during the 19th century provided slowly increasing competition for sailing ships—initially only on short routes where high prices could be charged. By the 1880s, ships withtriple-expansion steam engines had thefuel efficiency to compete with sail on all major routes—and with scheduled sailings that were not affected by the wind direction. However, commercial sailing vessels could still be found working into the 20th century, although in reducing numbers and only in certain trades.
By theAge of Discovery—starting in the 15th century—square-rigged, multi-masted vessels were the norm and were guided by navigation techniques that included the magnetic compass and making sightings of the sun and stars that allowed transoceanic voyages. The Age of Sail reached its peak in the 18th and 19th centuries with large, heavily armedbattleships andmerchant sailing ships.
Sailing andsteam ships coexisted for much of the 19th century. The steamers of the early part of the century had very poor fuel efficiency and were suitable only for a small number of roles, such as towing sailing ships and providing short route passenger and mail services. Both sailing and steam ships saw large technological improvements over the century. Ultimately the two large stepwise improvements in fuel efficiency ofcompound and thentriple-expansion steam engines made the steamship, by the 1880s, able to compete in the vast majority of trades. Commercial sail still continued into the 20th century, with the last ceasing to trade byc. 1960.[6]: 106–111 [7]: 89
Large Austronesian trading ships with as many as four sails were recorded byHan dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) scholars as thekunlun bo orK'un-lun po (崑崙舶, lit. "ship of theKunlun people"). They were booked by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims for passage to Southern India and Sri Lanka.[10]Bas reliefs of large Javaneseoutriggers ships with various configurations of tanja sails are also found in theBorobudur temple, dating back to the 8th century CE.[11][12]: 100
By the 10th century AD, theSong dynasty started building the first Chinese seafaringjunks, which adopted several features of theK'un-lun po.[13]: 18 Thejunk rig in particular, became associated with Chinese coast-hugging trading ships.[14][15]: 22 [13]: 20–21 Junks in China were constructed from teak with pegs and nails; they featuredwatertight compartments and acquired center-mountedtillers andrudders.[16] These ships became the basis for the development of Chinese warships during theMongolYuan dynasty, and were used in the unsuccessfulMongol invasions of Japanand Java.[15]: 22 [17]
TheMing dynasty (1368–1644) saw the use of junks as long-distance trading vessels. Chinese AdmiralZheng He reportedly sailed to India, Arabia, and southern Africa on a trade and diplomatic mission.[18][19] Literary lore suggests that his largest vessel, the "Treasure Ship", measured 400 feet (120 m) in length and 150 feet (46 m) in width,[20] whereas modern research suggests that it was unlikely to have exceeded 70 metres (230 ft) in length.[21]
Sailing ships in the Mediterranean region date back to at least 3000 BC, whenEgyptians used a bipod mast to support a singlesquare sail on a vessel that mainly relied on multiple paddlers.[22][failed verification] Later the mast became a single pole, and paddles were supplanted with oars. Such vessels plied both the Nile and the Mediterranean coast. TheMinoan civilization ofCrete may have been the world's firstthalassocracy brought to prominence by sailing vessels dating to before 1800 BC (Middle Minoan IIB).[23] Between 1000 BC and 400 AD, thePhoenicians,Greeks andRomans developed ships that were powered by square sails, sometimes with oars to supplement their capabilities. Such vessels used asteering oar as a rudder to control direction.
Starting in the 8th century in Denmark,Vikings were buildingclinker-constructedlongships propelled by a single, square sail, when practical, and oars, when necessary.[24] A related craft was theknarr, which plied theBaltic andNorth Seas, using primarily sail power.[25] The windward edge of the sail was stiffened with abeitass, a pole that fitted into the lower corner of the sail, when sailing close to the wind.[26]
India's maritime history began during the 3rd millennium BCE when inhabitants of the Indus Valley initiated maritime trading contact with Mesopotamia. Indian kingdoms such as theKalinga from as early as 2nd century CE are believed to have had sailing ships. One of the earliest instances of documented evidence of Indian sailing ship building comes from the mural of three-masted ship in the Ajanta caves that date back to 400-500 CE.[27][28]
TheIndian Ocean was the venue for increasing trade between India and Africa between 1200 and 1500. The vessels employed would be classified asdhows withlateen rigs. During this interval such vessels grew in capacity from 100 to 400tonnes. Dhows were often built with teak planks from India and Southeast Asia, sewn together with coconut husk fiber—no nails were employed. This period also saw the implementation of center-mounted rudders, controlled with a tiller.[29]
Technological advancements that were important to the Age of Discovery in the 15th century were the adoption of themagnetic compass and advances in ship design.
The compass was an addition to the ancient method of navigation based on sightings of the sun and stars. The compass was invented by Chinese. It had been used for navigation in China by the 11th century and was adopted by the Arab traders in the Indian Ocean. The compass spread to Europe by the late 12th or early 13th century.[30] Use of the compass for navigation in the Indian Ocean was first mentioned in 1232.[14] The Europeans used a "dry" compass, with a needle on a pivot. The compass card was also a European invention.[14]
At the beginning of the 15th century, thecarrack was the most capable European ocean-going ship. It wascarvel-built and large enough to be stable in heavy seas. It was capable of carrying a large cargo and the provisions needed for very long voyages. Later carracks were square-rigged on theforemast andmainmast and lateen-rigged on themizzenmast. They had a high roundedstern with largeaftcastle,forecastle andbowsprit at the stem. As the predecessor of thegalleon, the carrack was one of the most influential ship designs in history; while ships became more specialized in the following centuries, the basic design remained unchanged throughout this period.[31]
Ships of this era were only able to sail approximately 70° into the wind andtacked from one side to the other across the wind with difficulty, which made it challenging to avoid shipwrecks when near shores or shoals during storms.[32] Nonetheless, such vessels reached India around Africa withVasco da Gama,[33] the Americas withChristopher Columbus,[34] and around the world underFerdinand Magellan.[35]
1798 sea battle between a French and Britishman-of-warA late-19th-century AmericanclippershipThe five-mastedPreussen was the largest sailing ship ever built.Schooners became favored for some coast-wise commerce after 1850—they enabled a small crew to handle sails.
Sailing ships became longer and faster over time, with ship-rigged vessels carrying taller masts with more square sails. Other sail plans emerged, as well, that had just fore-and-aft sails (schooners), or a mixture of the two (brigantines,barques andbarquentines).[36]
Cannons were introduced in the 14th century, but did not become common at sea until they could be reloaded quickly enough to be reused in the same battle. The size of a ship required to carry a large number of cannon made oar-based propulsion impossible, and warships came to rely primarily on sails. The sailingman-of-war emerged during the 16th century.[37]
By the middle of the 17th century, warships were carrying increasing numbers of cannon on three decks.Naval tactics evolved to bring each ship's firepower to bear in aline of battle—coordinated movements of a fleet of warships to engage a line of ships in the enemy fleet.[38] Carracks with a single cannon deck evolved intogalleons with as many as two full cannon decks,[39] which evolved into the man-of-war, and further into theship of the line—designed for engaging the enemy in a line of battle. One side of a ship was expected to shootbroadsides against an enemy ship at close range.[38] In the 18th century, the small and fastfrigate andsloop-of-war—too small to stand in the line of battle—evolved toconvoy trade, scout for enemy ships andblockade enemy coasts.[40]
The term "clipper" started to be used in the first quarter of the 19th century. It was applied to sailing vessels designed primarily for speed. Only a small proportion of sailing vessels could properly have the term applied to them.[7]: 33
Early examples were the schooners and brigantines, calledBaltimore clippers, used for blockade running or as privateers in theWar of 1812 and afterwards for smugglingopium orillegally transporting slaves. Larger clippers, usually ship or barque rigged and with a different hull design, were built for theCalifornia trade (from east coast USA ports to San Francisco) after gold was discovered in 1848 – the associated shipbuilding boom lasted until 1854.[41]: 7, 9, 13.14
Clippers were built for trade between the United Kingdom and China after theEast India Company lost its monopoly in 1834. The primary cargo was tea, and sailing ships, particularly tea clippers, dominated this long-distance route until the development offuel efficient steamships coincided with the opening of theSuez Canal in 1869.[42]: 9–10, 209
Other clippers worked on the Australian immigrant routes or, in smaller quantities, in any role where a fast passage secured higher rates of freight[a] or passenger fares. Whilst many clippers wereship rigged, the definition is not limited to any rig.[41]: 10–11
Clippers were generally built for a specific trade: those in the California trade had to withstand the seas of Cape Horn, whilst Tea Clippers were designed for the lighter and contrary winds of the China Sea. All had fine lines,[b] with a well streamlined hull and carried a large sail area. To get the best of this, a skilled and determined master was needed in command.[41]: 16–19
During the Age of Sail, ships' hulls were under frequent attack byshipworm (which affected the structural strength of timbers), andbarnacles and various marineweeds (which affected ship speed).[43] Since before the common era, a variety of coatings had been applied to hulls to counter this effect, including pitch, wax, tar, oil, sulfur and arsenic.[44] In the mid 18th centurycopper sheathing was developed as a defense against such bottom fouling.[45] After coping with problems ofgalvanic deterioration of metal hull fasteners,sacrificial anodes were developed, which were designed to corrode, instead of the hull fasteners.[46] The practice became widespread on naval vessels, starting in the late 18th century,[47] and on merchant vessels, starting in the early 19th century, until the advent of iron and steel hulls.[46]
Iron-hulled sailing ships, often referred to as "windjammers" or "tall ships",[48] represented the final evolution of sailing ships at the end of the Age of Sail. They were built to carry bulk cargo for long distances in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. They were the largest of merchant sailing ships, with three to five masts and square sails, as well as othersail plans. They carriedlumber,guano,grain orore between continents. Later examples had steel hulls. Iron-hulled sailing ships were mainly built from the 1870s to 1900, whensteamships began to outpace them economically, due to their ability to keep a schedule regardless of the wind. Steel hulls also replaced iron hulls at around the same time. Even into the twentieth century, sailing ships could hold their own on transoceanic voyages such as Australia to Europe, since they did not requirebunkerage for coal nor fresh water for steam, and they were faster than the early steamers, which usually could barely make 8 knots (15 km/h).[49]
The four-masted, iron-hulled ship, introduced in 1875 with the full-riggedCounty of Peebles, represented an especially efficient configuration that prolonged the competitiveness of sail against steam in the later part of the 19th century.[50] The largest example of such ships was the five-masted,full-rigged shipPreussen, which had a load capacity of 7,800 tonnes.[51] Ships transitioned from all sail to all steam-power from the mid 19th century into the 20th.[48] Five-mastedPreussen usedsteam power for driving thewinches,hoists andpumps, and could be manned by a crew of 48, compared with four-mastedKruzenshtern, which has a crew of 257.[52]
Coastal top-sail schooners with a crew as small as two managing the sail handling became an efficient way to carry bulk cargo, since only the fore-sails required tending whiletacking and steam-driven machinery was often available for raising the sails and theanchor.[53]
In the 20th century, theDynaRig allowed central, automated control of all sails in a manner that obviates the need for sending crew aloft. This was developed in the 1960s in Germany as a low-carbon footprint propulsion alternative for commercial ships. The rig automatically sets and reefs sails; its mast rotates to align the sails with the wind. The sailing yachtsMaltese Falcon andBlack Pearl employ the rig.[52][54]
In the 21st century, due to concern about climate change and the possibility of cost savings, companies explored using wind-power to reduce heavy fuel needs on large containerizedcargo ships. By 2023, around 30 ships were using sails or attached kites, with the number expected to grow.[55][56] The following year,The Economist wrote that the technology was at an inflection point as it moved from trials and testing towards adoption by the industry.[57]
Every sailing ship has asail plan that is adapted to the purpose of the vessel and the ability of the crew; each has ahull,rigging andmasts to hold up thesails that use thewind to power the ship; the masts are supported bystanding rigging and the sails are adjusted byrunning rigging.
Hull form lines, lengthwise and in cross-section from a 1781 plan
Hull shapes for sailing ships evolved from being relatively short and blunt to being longer and finer at the bow.[36][obsolete source] By the nineteenth century, ships were built with reference to a half model, made from wooden layers that were pinned together. Each layer could be scaled to the actual size of the vessel in order to lay out its hull structure, starting with the keel and leading to the ship's ribs. The ribs were pieced together from curved elements, called futtocks and tied in place until the installation of the planking. Typically, planking was caulked with a tar-impregnated yarn made from manila or hemp to make the planking watertight.[58] Starting in the mid-19th century, iron was used first for the hull structure and later for its watertight sheathing.[59]
Until the mid-19th century all vessels' masts were made of wood formed from a single or several pieces of timber which typically consisted of the trunk of aconifer tree. From the 16th century, vessels were often built of a size requiring masts taller and thicker than could be made from single tree trunks. On these larger vessels, to achieve the required height, the masts were built from up to four sections (also called masts), known in order of rising height above the decks as the lower, top, topgallant and royal masts.[61] Giving the lower sections sufficient thickness necessitated building them up from separate pieces of wood. Such a section was known as amade mast, as opposed to sections formed from single pieces of timber, which were known aspole masts.[62] Starting in the second half of the 19th century, masts were made of iron or steel.[36]
For ships with square sails the principal masts, given their standard names inbow tostern (front to back) order, are:
Fore-mast – the mast nearest the bow, or the mast forward of the main-mast with sections: fore-mast lower, fore topmast, and fore topgallant mast[61]
Main-mast – the tallest mast, usually located near the center of the ship with sections: main-mast lower, main topmast, main topgallant mast, royal mast (sometimes)[61]
Mizzen-mast – the aft-most mast. Typically shorter than the fore-mast with sections: mizzen-mast lower, mizzen topmast, and mizzen topgallant mast.[63]
Each rig is configured in asail plan, appropriate to the size of the sailing craft. Both square-rigged and fore-and-aft rigged vessels have been built with a wide range of configurations for single and multiple masts.[65]
Types of sail that can be part of a sail plan can be broadly classed by how they areattached to the sailing craft:
To a stay – Sails attached to stays, includejibs, which are attached toforestays andstaysails, which are mounted on other stays (typically wire cable) that support other masts from the bow aft.
To a mast – Fore-and-aft sails directly attached to the mast at the luff includegaff-rigged quadrilateral andBermuda triangular sails.
Square sail edges and corners (top). Running rigging (bottom).
Sailing ships havestanding rigging to support the masts andrunning rigging to raise the sails and control their ability to draw power from the wind. The running rigging has three main roles, to support the sail structure, to shape the sail and to adjust its angle to the wind. Square-rigged vessels require more controlling lines than fore-and-aft rigged ones.
Sailing ships prior to the mid-19th century used wood masts with hemp-fiber standing rigging. As rigs became taller by the end of the 19th century, masts relied more heavily on successive spars, stepped one atop the other to form the whole, from bottom to top: thelower mast,top mast, andtopgallant mast. This construction relied heavily on support by a complex array of stays and shrouds. Each stay in either the fore-and-aft or athwartships direction had a corresponding one in the opposite direction providing counter-tension. Fore-and-aft the system of tensioning started with the stays that were anchored in front each mast. Shrouds were tensioned by pairs ofdeadeyes, circular blocks that had the large-diameter line run around them, whilst multiple holes allowed smaller line—lanyard—to pass multiple times between the two and thereby allow tensioning of the shroud. After the mid-19th century square-rigged vessels were equipped with iron wire standing rigging, which was superseded with steel wire in the late 19th century.[66][42]: 46
Halyards, used to raise and lower the yards, are the primary supporting lines.[67] In addition, square rigs have lines that lift the sail or the yard from which it is suspended that include:brails,buntlines, lifts and leechlines. Bowlines and clew lines shape a square sail.[60] To adjust the angle of the sail to windbraces are used to adjust the fore and aft angle of ayard of a square sail, whilesheets attach to theclews (bottom corners) of a sail to control the sail's angle to the wind. Sheets run aft, whereastacks are used to haul the clew of a square sail forward.[60]
Sailing ships needed ballast to keep the centre of gravity low and supply stability to the vessel when under sail. Ballast in the age of sail might consist of shingle, sand, lead, iron bars or bricks.[68] Care had to be taken in the stowage of the ballast so that it did not move during heavy weather and endanger the ship and those aboard. Sand ballast, for instance, had to be contained by wooden boards, or in wooden boxes, to stop it moving about.[69]
Thecrew of a sailing ship is divided between officers (thecaptain and his subordinates) andseamen orordinaryhands. An able seaman was expected to "hand, reef, and steer" (handle the lines and other equipment, reef the sails, and steer the vessel).[70] The crew is organized to standwatch—the oversight of the ship for a period—typically four hours each.[71]Richard Henry Dana Jr. andHerman Melville each had personal experience aboard sailing vessels of the 19th century.
Dana described the crew of the merchant brig,Pilgrim, as comprising six to eight common sailors, four specialist crew members (the steward, cook, carpenter and sailmaker), and three officers: thecaptain, thefirst mate and thesecond mate. He contrasted the American crew complement with that of other nations on whose similarly sized ships the crew might number as many as 30.[72] Larger merchant vessels had larger crews.[73]
Melville described the crew complement of thefrigate warship,United States, as about 500—including officers, enlisted personnel and 50 Marines. The crew was divided into the starboard and larboard watches. It was also divided into threetops, bands of crew responsible for setting sails on the three masts; a band ofsheet-anchor men, whose station was forward and whose job was to tend the fore-yard, anchors and forward sails; theafter guard, who were stationed aft and tended the mainsail, spanker and manned the various sheets, controlling the position of the sails; thewaisters, who were stationed midships and had menial duties attending the livestock, etc.; and theholders, who occupied the lower decks of the vessel and were responsible for the inner workings of the ship. He additionally named such positions as, boatswains, gunners, carpenters, coopers, painters, tinkers, stewards, cooks and various boys as functions on the man-of-war.[74] 18-19th century ships of the line had a complement as high as 850.[75]
Sailing ship at sea, rolling and heeled over from the force of the wind on its sails.
Handling a sailing ship requires management of its sails to power—but not overpower—the ship and navigation to guide the ship, both at sea and in and out of harbors.
Key elements of sailing a ship are setting the right amount of sail to generate maximum power without endangering the ship, adjusting the sails to the wind direction on the course sailed, and changing tack to bring the wind from one side of the vessel to the other.
A sailing ship crew manages the running rigging of each square sail. Each sail has two sheets that control its lower corners, two braces that control the angle of the yard, two clewlines, four buntlines and two reef tackles. All these lines must be manned as the sail is deployed and the yard raised. They use a halyard to raise each yard and its sail; then they pull or ease the braces to set the angle of the yard across the vessel; they pull on sheets to haul lower corners of the sail,clews, out to yard below. Under way, the crew managesreef tackles,haul leeches,reef points, to manage the size and angle of the sail;bowlines pull the leading edge of the sail (leech) taut when close hauled. When furling the sail, the crew usesclewlines, haul up the clews andbuntlines to haul up the middle of sail up; when lowered,lifts support each yard.[76]
In strong winds, the crew is directed to reduce the number of sails or, alternatively, the amount of each given sail that is presented to the wind by a process calledreefing. To pull the sail up, seamen on the yardarm pull onreef tackles, attached toreef cringles, to pull the sail up and secure it with lines, calledreef points.[77] Dana spoke of the hardships of sail handling during high wind and rain or with ice covering the ship and its rigging.[72]
Diagram contrasting course made good to windward by tacking a schooner versus a square-rigged ship.
Sailing vessels cannot sail directly into the wind. Instead,square-riggers must sail a course that is between 60° and 70° away from the wind direction[78] and fore-and aft vessels can typically sail no closer than 45°.[79] To reach a destination, sailing vessels may have to change course and allow the wind to come from the opposite side in a procedure, calledtacking, when the wind comes across the bow during the maneuver.
When tacking, a square-rigged vessel's sails must be presented squarely to the wind and thus impede forward motion as they are swung around via theyardarms through the wind as controlled by the vessel'srunning rigging, usingbraces—adjusting the fore and aft angle of eachyardarm around the mast—andsheets attached to theclews (bottom corners) of each sail to control the sail's angle to the wind.[60] The procedure is to turn the vessel into the wind with the hind-most fore-and-aft sail (thespanker), pulled to windward to help turn the ship through the eye of the wind. Once the ship has come about, all the sails are adjusted to align properly with the new tack. Because square-riggermasts are more strongly braced from behind than from ahead, tacking is a dangerous procedure in strong winds; the ship may lose forward momentum (becomecaught in stays) and the rigging may fail from the wind coming from ahead. The ship may also lose momentum at wind speeds of less than 10 knots (19 km/h).[78] Under these conditions, the choice may be towear ship—to turn the ship away from the wind and around 240° onto the next tack (60° off the wind).[80][81]
A fore-and-aft rig permits the wind to flow past the sail, as the craft head through the eye of the wind. Most rigs pivot around a stay or the mast, while this occurs. For ajib, the oldleeward sheet is released as the craft heads through the wind and the oldwindward sheet is tightened as the new leeward sheet to allow the sail to draw wind.Mainsails are often self-tending and slide on atraveler to the opposite side.[82] On certain rigs, such aslateens[83] andluggers,[84] the sail may be partially lowered to bring it to the opposite side.
The marinesextant is used to measure the elevation of celestial bodies above the horizon.
Early navigational techniques employed observations of the sun, stars, waves and birdlife. In the 15th century, the Chinese were using the magnetic compass to identify direction of travel. By the 16th century in Europe, navigational instruments included thequadrant, theastrolabe,cross staff,dividers and compass. By the time of the Age of Exploration these tools were being used in combination with alog to measure speed, a lead line to measuresoundings, and a lookout to identify potential hazards. Later, an accuratemarine sextant became standard for determininglatitude and was used with an accuratechronometer to calculatelongitude.[85][86]
Passage planning begins with laying out a route along a chart, which comprises a series of courses between fixes—verifiable locations that confirm the actual track of the ship on the ocean. Once a course has been set, the person at the helm attempts to follow its direction with reference to the compass. The navigator notes the time and speed at each fix to estimate the arrival at the next fix, a process calleddead reckoning. For coast-wise navigation, sightings from known landmarks ornavigational aids may be used to establish fixes, a process calledpilotage.[1][obsolete source] At sea, sailing ships usedcelestial navigation on a daily schedule, as follows:[87]
Continuous dead reckoning plot
Star observations at morning twilight for a celestial fix
Morning Sun observation to determine compass error by azimuth observation of the Sun
Noontime observation of the Sun for noon latitude line for determination the day's run and day's set and drift
Afternoon sun line to determine compass error by azimuth observation of the Sun
Star observations at evening twilight for a celestial fix
Fixes were taken with a marinesextant, which measures the distance of the celestial body above the horizon.[85]
Given the limited maneuverability of sailing ships, it could be difficult to enter and leaveharbor with the presence of atide without coordinating arrivals with a flooding tide and departures with an ebbing tide. In harbor, a sailing ship stood at anchor, unless it needed to be loaded or unloaded at adock orpier, in which case it might be warped alongside or towed by a tug. Warping involved using a long rope (the warp) between the ship and a fixed point on the shore. This was pulled on by a capstan on shore, or on the ship. This might be a multi-stage process if the route was not simple. If no fixed point was available, a kedge anchor might be taken out in a ship's boat to a suitable point and the ship then pulled up to the kedge. Square rigged vessels could usebacking and filling (of the sails) to manoeuvre in a tideway, or control could be maintained bydrudging the anchor - lower the anchor until it touches the bottom so that the dragging anchor gives steerage way in the flow of the tide.[88][89]: 199–202
^The fineness of a ship's hull is best described by considering a rectangular cuboid with the same length, breadth (beam) and depth as the hull of the ship. The more material that you have to carve away to get the shape of the ship's hull, the finer the lines.
^abQuiller-Couch, Arthur Thomas (1895).The Story of the Sea. Vol. 1. Cassell and Company. p. 760.Archived from the original on 2023-10-27. Retrieved2017-07-25.
^Parker, Dana T.Square Riggers in the United States and Canada, pp. 6–7, Transportation Trails, Polo, IL, 1994.ISBN0-933449-19-4.
^Atholl Anderson (2018). Cochrane, Ethan E; Hunt, Terry L. (eds.).The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Oceania. New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-992507-0.Yet, no other major topic in Oceanic prehistory has proven so intractable, for almost no remains of offshore boats have been described and seafaring left neither a pre-European record of the structure and rigging of boats, except enigmatically in rock art, nor more than a faint ethnographic trace of the basic techniques of long-distance sailing, navigation, and seakeeping. That Oceanic seafaring can be discussed at all depends largely, and tenuously, upon its construction by proxy.
^Griffiths, Denis (1993). "Chapter 5: Triple Expansion and the First Shipping Revolution". In Gardiner, Robert; Greenhill, Dr. Basil (eds.).The Advent of Steam - The Merchant Steamship before 1900. Conway Maritime Press Ltd. pp. 106–126.ISBN0-85177-563-2.
^abGardiner, Robert J; Greenhill, Basil (1993).Sail's Last Century : the Merchant Sailing Ship 1830-1930. London: Conway Maritime Press.ISBN0-85177-565-9.
^Doran, Edwin Jr. (1974)."Outrigger Ages".The Journal of the Polynesian Society.83 (2):130–140.Archived from the original on 2019-06-08. Retrieved2019-09-26.
^Mahdi, Waruno (1999). "The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean". In Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew (eds.).Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts. One World Archaeology. Vol. 34. Routledge. pp. 144–179.ISBN978-0415100540.
^abcPaine, Lincoln (2013).The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World. New York: Random House, LLC.
^abWorcester, G. R. G. (1947).The Junks and Sampans of the Yangtze, A Study in Chinese Nautical Research, Volume I: Introduction; and Craft of the Estuary and Shanghai Area. Shanghai: Order of the Inspector General of Customs.
^Wade, Geoff (2005). "The Zheng He Voyages: A Reassessment".Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.78 (1 (288)):37–58.JSTOR41493537.
^Bonn-Muller, Eti."First Minoan Shipwreck".Archaeology Magazine. Archaeological Institute of America.Archived from the original on 31 August 2021. Retrieved31 August 2021.
^abcMacGregor, David R (1993).British and American Clippers: A Comparison of their Design, Construction and Performance. London: Conway Maritime Press Limited.ISBN0-85177-588-8.
^abMacGregor, David R. (1983).The Tea Clippers, Their History and Development 1833-1875. Conway Maritime Press Limited.ISBN0-85177-256-0.
^Telegdi, J.; Trif, L.; Romanski, L. (2016). Montemor, Maria Fatima (ed.).Smart composite coatings and membranes : transport, structural, environmental and energy applications. Cambridge, UK: Elsevier. pp. 130–1.ISBN9781782422952.OCLC928714218.
^Cumming, Bill (2009).Gone – a chronicle of the seafarers & fabulous clipper ships of R & J Craig of Glasgow : Craig's "Counties". Glasgow: Brown, Son & Ferguson.ISBN9781849270137.OCLC491200437.
^Turpin, Edward A.; MacEwen, William A.; Hayler, William B. (1965).Merchant Marine officers' handbook. Cambridge, Md.: Cornell Maritime Press.ISBN087033056X.OCLC228950964.
^Harland, John (1984).Seamanship in the Age of Sail: an account of the shiphandling of the sailing man-of-war 1600-1860, based on contemporary sources. London: Conway Maritime Press.ISBN978-1-8448-6309-9.
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