TheShailendra dynasty (IAST:Śailēndra,Indonesian pronunciation:[ʃaɪlenˈdraː] derived fromSanskrit combined wordsŚaila andIndra, meaning "King of the Mountain",[1] also spelledSailendra,Syailendra orSelendra) was the name of a notableIndianised dynasty that emerged in 8th-centuryJava, whose reign signified a cultural renaissance in the region.[2] The Shailendras were active promoters ofMahayanaBuddhism and covered theKedu Plain ofCentral Java with Buddhistmonuments, one of which is the colossalstupa ofBorobudur, now aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site.[3][4][5]
The Shailendras are considered to have been athalassocracy and ruled vast swathes of maritime Southeast Asia; however, they also relied on agricultural pursuits, by way of intensive rice cultivation on theKedu Plain of Central Java. The dynasty appeared to be the ruling family of theMataram kingdom of Central Java, and for some period, theSrivijaya Kingdom in Sumatra.
The inscriptions created by Shailendras use three languages;Old Javanese,Old Malay, andSanskrit — written either in theKawi alphabet, or pre-Nāgarī script.[6] The use of Old Malay has sparked speculation of a Sumatran origin, or Srivijayan connection of this family. On the other hand, the use of Old Javanese suggests their firm political establishment on Java. The use of Sanskrit usually indicates the official nature, and/or religious significance, of the event described in any given inscription.[7]
TheSojomerto inscription (9th century CE) discovered inBatang Regency, Central Java, mentioned the nameDapunta Selendra andSelendranamah. The name 'Selendra' has been suggested as another spelling of Shailendra, meaning that Dapunta Selendra was the progenitor of Shailendra family in Central Java.[8] However, recent analysis suggested that this was not true: The inscription has diphthongai in it, so it is unlikely that Selendra was another name for Shailendra, and the Sumatran origin of Sailendra dynasty was thus unproven.[2]: 24–25
The earliest dated inscription in Indonesia in which clearly mentioned the dynastic name ofŚailēndra asŚailēndravamśatilaka appears is theKalasan inscription (778) of central Java, which mention its rulerMahārāja dyāḥ Pañcapaṇa kariyāna Paṇaṃkaraṇa and commemorates the establishment of a Buddhist shrine,CandiKalasan, dedicated for the goddessTara.[2][9]
The name also appears in several other inscriptions like theKelurak inscription (782) and theKarangtengah inscription (824). Outside Indonesia, the name Shailendra is to be found in theLigor inscription (775) on the Malay peninsula andNalanda inscription (860) in India.[9] It is possible that it wasPaṇaṃkaraṇa that create the Chaiya, orLigor inscription (775), and took control over Srivijayan realm in the Southern Thailand Malay Peninsula.[2]
Although the rise of the Shailendras occurred inKedu Plain in the Javanese heartland, their origin has been the subject of discussion.[10] Apart from Java itself, an earlier homeland inSumatra,India,Funan, orCambodia has been suggested. The latest studies apparently favour a native origin of the dynasty. Despite their connections with Srivijaya in Sumatra and Thai-Malay Peninsula, the Shailendras were more likely of Javanese origin.[2]: 27
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One theory suggests that Shailendra was a native Javanese dynasty and theSanjaya dynasty was actually a branch of the Shailendras sinceSri Sanjaya and his offspring belong to the Shailendra family that were initially theShaivist rulers of theMataram kingdom.[11] The association of Shailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Panaraban or Panangkaran to Buddhism. This theory is based on theCarita Parahyangan, which tells of the ailing King Sanjaya ordering his son, Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran, to convert to Buddhism because their faith inShiva was feared by the people in favor of the pacifist Buddhist faith. The conversion of Panangkaran to Buddhism also corresponds to theRaja Sankhara inscription, which tells of a king named Sankhara (identified as Panangkaran) converting to Buddhism because his Shaiva faith was feared by the people. Unfortunately, the Raja Sankhara inscription is now missing.
Other scholars hold that the expansion of Buddhist kingdom ofSrivijaya was involved in the rise of the dynasty in Java.[12] Supporters of this connection emphasize the shared Mahayana patronage; the intermarriages and the Ligor inscription. Also the fact that some of Shailendra's inscriptions were written inold Malay, which suggested Srivijaya or Sumatran connections. The name 'Selendra' was first mentioned inSojomerto inscription as "Dapunta Selendra". Dapunta Selendra is suggested as the ancestor of Shailendras. The title Dapunta is similar to those of Srivijayan KingDapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, and the inscription — although discovered in Central Java north coast — was written in old Malay, which suggested the Sumatran origin or Srivijayan connection to this family. The Sojomerto inscription is often used as evidence that the Shailendra dynasty came from Sumatra because it assumes the wordSelendra as the Malay designation for Shailendra and assumed that Dapunta Selendra was the predecessor of the dynasty. Recent studies show no such evidence: According to Damais, the Sojomerto inscription dates from early 9th century,[13] placing it after theKedukan Bukit inscription (683 AD). In addition, the name Selendra from the Sojomerto inscription does not seem to have anything to do with Shailendra: The inscription mentions the wordshakairu anddaiva which have the diphthong ai, so that diphthong should also be used in the nameDapunta Selendra. In addition, this theory is obsolete because there is no data on the existence of the Shailendra dynasty in Sumatra earlier than the ninth century and Srivijaya was unable to conquer Java. What happened was the opposite — the Shailendra dynasty subdued Srivijaya and its area on the Malay peninsula.[2]: 22–27
According to the old theory ofRamesh Chandra Majumdar (1933), an Indian scholar, the Shailendra dynasty that established itself in the Indonesian archipelago originated fromKalinga (modernOdisha) in Eastern India.[14] This opinion is also shared byNilakanta Sastri and J. L. Moens. Moens (1937) further describes that the Shailendras originated in India and established themselves inPalembang before the arrival of Srivijaya'sDapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa. In 683, the Shailendras moved to Java because of the pressure exerted by Dapunta Hyang and his troops.[15]
In 1934, the French scholarCoedes proposed a relation with theFunan kingdom inCambodia. Coedes believed that the Funanese rulers used similar-sounding 'mountainlord' titles, but several Cambodia specialists have discounted this. They hold there is no historical evidence for such titles in the Funan period.[16]
The Shailendra rulers maintained cordial relations, including marriage alliances withSrivijaya inSumatra. For instance,Samaragrawira married Dewi Tara, a daughter of Srivijayan MaharajaDharmasetu. The mutual alliance between the two kingdoms ensured that Srivijaya had no need to fear the emergence of a Javanese rival and that the Shailendra had access to the international market.
Karangtengah inscription dated 824 mentioned about king Samaratungga. His daughter namedPramodhawardhani has inaugurated aJinalaya, a sacred buddhist sanctuary. The inscription also mentioned a sacred Buddhist building calledVenuvana to place the cremated ashes of King Indra. TheTri Tepusan inscription dated 842 mentioned about thesima (tax free) lands awarded by Śrī Kahulunan (Pramodhawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga) to ensure the funding and maintenance of aKamūlān calledBhūmisambhāra.[17]Kamūlān itself from the wordmula which means 'the place of origin', a sacred building to honor theancestors. These findings suggested that either the ancestors of the Shailendras were originated from Central Java, or as the sign that Shailendra have established their holds on Java. Casparis suggested thatBhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra which inSanskrit means "The mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages ofBoddhisattvahood", was the original name of Borobudur.[18]
The received older version holds that the Shailendra dynasty existed next to theSanjaya dynasty in Java. Much of the period was characterized by peaceful co-existence and cooperation but towards the middle of the 9th century relations had deteriorated. Around 852 the Sanjaya ruler Pikatan had defeated Balaputra, the offspring of the Shailendra monarch Samaratunga and princess Tara. This ended the Shailendra presence in Java and Balaputra retreated to the Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra, where he became the paramount ruler.[19][20]: 108
Earlier historians, such as N.J. Krom and Coedes, tend to equateSamaragrawira andSamaratungga as the same person.[20]: 108 However, later historians such as Slamet Muljana equate Samaratungga with Rakai Garung, mentioned inMantyasih inscription as fifth monarch ofMataram kingdom. Which means Samaratungga was the successor of Samaragrawira, andBalaputradewa that is also Samaragrawira's son, is Samaratungga's younger brother and ruled in Suvarnadvipa (Sumatra), and he is not Samaratungga's son. This version holds Balaputra that reign in Sumatra challenged the Pikatan-Pramodhawardhani legitimation in Java, arguing that his niece and her husband has less rights to rule Java compared to his.
In 851 anArabic merchant named Sulaiman recorded an event about Javanese Sailendras staging a surprise attack on the Khmers by approaching the capital from the river, after a sea crossing from Java. The young king of Khmer was later punished by the Maharaja, and subsequently the kingdom became a vassal of Sailendra dynasty.[21]: 35 In 916 CE, Abu Zaid Hasan mentioned that a polity calledZabag invaded the Khmer kingdom, using 1000 "medium-sized" vessels, which resulted in a Zabag victory. The head of the Khmer king was then brought to Zabag.[22]: 137–138 Regardless of whether the story was true or not or just a legend, it may have a connection with the independence of Cambodia from Javanese suzerainty in 802 CE. Zabag might corresponds to Jawaka/Javaka, which may refer to Java or South Sumatra.[23]: 269, 302
After 824, there are no more references to the Shailendra house in the Javanese epigraphic record. Around 860 the name re-appears in theNalanda inscription in India. According to the text, the king Devapaladeva of Bengala (Pala Empire) had granted 'Balaputra, the king of Suvarna-dvipa' (Sumatra) the revenues of 5 villages to a Buddhist monastery nearBodh Gaya. Balaputra was styled a descendant from the Shailendra dynasty and grandson of the king of Java.[20]: 108–109 [24]
From Sumatra, the Shailendras also maintained overseas relations with theChola kingdom in Southern India, as shown by several south Indian inscriptions. An 11th-century inscription mentioned the grant of revenues to a local Buddhist sanctuary, built in 1005 by the king of the Srivijaya. In spite the relations were initially fairly cordial, hostilities had broken out in 1025.[25]Rajendra Chola I the Emperor of theChola dynasty conquered some territories of the Shailendra dynasty in the 11th century.[26] The devastation caused byChola invasion of Srivijaya in 1025, marked the end of Shailendra family as the ruling dynasty in Sumatra. The last king of Shailendra dynasty — the MaharajaSangrama Vijayatunggavarman — was imprisoned and taken as hostage. Nevertheless, amity was re-established between the two states, before the end of the 11th century. In 1090 a new charter was granted to the old Buddhist sanctuary, it is the last known inscription with a reference to the Shailendras. With the absence of legitimate successor, Shailendra dynasty seems ceased to rule. Other family within Srivijaya mandala took over the throne, a new Maharaja namedSri Deva according to Chinese source establishing new dynasty to rule Srivijaya. He sent an embassy to the court of China in 1028 CE.
Sri Kesari Warmadewa was said to be a Buddhist king of the Shailendra dynasty who led a military expedition[27] to establish aMahayana Buddhist government inBali.[28] In 914, he left a record of his endeavour in theBelanjong pillar inSanur in Bali. According to this inscription, theWarmadewa dynasty was probably the branch of Shailendras that ruled Bali.
Traditionally, the Shailendra period was viewed to span from the 8th to the 9th century, confined only in Central Java, from the era of Panangkaran to Samaratungga. However the recent interpretation suggests the longer period of Shailendra family might existed, from the early 9th century (edict of Sojomerto inscription) to early 11th century (the fall of Shailendran dynasty of Srivijaya under Chola invasion). For certain period, Shailendras ruled both Central Java and Sumatra. Their alliance and intermarriage with Srivijayan ruling family resulted with the merging of two royal houses, with Shailendran finally emerge as the ruling family of both Srivijaya and Mataram (Central Java).
Some historians tried to reconstruct the order and list of Shailendra rulers, although there is some disagreement on the list. Boechari tried to reconstruct the early stage of Shailendra based on Sojomerto inscription, while other historians such as Slamet Muljana and Poerbatjaraka tried to reconstruct the list of Shailendran king in middle and later period with their connections toSanjaya and Srivijaya, based on inscriptions andCarita Parahyangan manuscript. However, there is some confusion occurred, because the Shailendra seems to rule many kingdoms; Kalingga, Mataram and later Srivijaya. As the result name of the same kings often overlapped and seem to rule these kingdoms simultaneously. The questionmark (?) signify doubt or speculation because of the scarcity of available valid sources.
| Date | King's or ruler's name | Capital | Stone inscription and source of historical account | Event |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 674—703 | Shima (?) | Kalingga, somewhere betweenPekalongan andJepara | Carita Parahyangan, Chinese account onHwi-ning visits toHo-ling kingdom (664) and the reign of queenHsi-mo (674) | Ruling the kingdom ofKalingga |
| 703—710 | Shalendra Sri Prakash (?) | ? | Carita Parahyangan | Son-in-law of Shima, ruling the kingdom ofGaluh |
| 710—717 | Sanna | ? | Canggal inscription (732),Carita Parahyangan | Sanna ruled Java, but after his death the kingdom fell to chaotic disunity by usurper or foreign invasion |
| 717—760 | Sanjaya | Mataram, Central Java | Canggal inscription (732),Carita Parahyangan | Sanjaya, the nephew (or son?) of Sanna restore the order and ascend to throne, some early historian took this event as the establishment of newSanjaya dynasty, while other hold that this only the continuation of Shailendras |
| 760—775 | Rakai Panangkaran | Mataram, Central Java | Raja Sankhara inscription,Kalasan inscription (778),Carita Parahyangan | Rakai Panangkaran converted from Shaivism to Mahayana Buddhism, construction ofKalasan temple[20]: 89 |
| 775—800 | Dharanindra | Mataram, Central Java | Kelurak inscription (782),Ligor inscription (c. 782 or 787)[20]: 91 | Also ruledSrivijaya in Sumatra, construction ofManjusrigrha temple, started the construction ofBorobudur (c. 770), Java ruled Ligor and Southern Cambodia (Chenla) (c. 790) |
| 800—812 | Samaragrawira[20]: 92–93 | Mataram, Central Java | Ligor inscription (c. 787) | Also ruledSrivijaya, lost Cambodia (802) |
| 812—833 | Samaratungga | Mataram, Central Java | Karangtengah inscription (824)[20]: 92 | Also ruledSrivijaya, completion of Borobudur (825) |
| 833—856 | Pramodhawardhani co-reign with her husbandRakai Pikatan[20]: 108 | Mataram, Central Java | Shivagrha inscription (856) | Defeated and expelledBalaputra to Srivijaya (Sumatra). Construction ofPrambanan andPlaosan temple. The successors of Pikatan, the series ofMataram kings from Lokapala (850—890) toWawa (924—929) could be considered as the continuation of Shailendra lineage, although KingBalitung (898—910) inMantyasih inscription (907) sought ancestor only as far as Sanjaya, thus enforced theSanjaya dynasty theory. |
| 833—850 | Balaputradewa | Srivijaya, South Sumatra | Shivagrha inscription (856),Nalanda inscription (860) | Defeated by Pikatan-Pramodhawardhani, expelled from Central Java, took refuge in Sumatra and ruleSrivijaya, claim as the legitimate successor of Shailendra dynasty from Java[20]: 108 |
| c. 960 | Śri Udayadityavarman | Srivijaya, South Sumatra | Embassies to China (960 and 962) | Sending embassies, tribute and trade mission to China |
| c. 980 | Haji (Hia-Tche) | Srivijaya, South Sumatra | Embassies to China (980–983) | Sending embassies, tribute and trade mission to China |
| c. 988 | SriCudamani Warmadewa | Srivijaya, South Sumatra | Embassies to China (988-992-1003), Tanjore Inscription or Leiden Inscription (1044) | Sending embassies, tribute and trade mission to China, Javanese KingDharmawangsa invasion on Srivijaya, building of temple for Chinese Emperor, gift of village by Raja-raja I |
| c. 1008 | Sri Maravijayottungga | Srivijaya, South Sumatra | Embassies to China (1008) | Sending embassies, tribute and trade mission to China (1008) |
| c. 1017 | Sumatrabhumi | Srivijaya, South Sumatra | Embassies to China (1017) | Sending embassies, tribute and trade mission to China (1017) |
| c. 1025 | Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman | Srivijaya, South Sumatra | Chola Inscription on the temple of Rajaraja, Tanjore | Chola raid on Srivijaya, the capital captured byRajendra Chola |
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