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Sadism (/ˈseɪdɪzəm/ ⓘ) andmasochism (/ˈmæsəkɪzəm/), known collectively assadomasochism (/ˌseɪdoʊˈmæsəkɪzəm/ ⓘSAY-doh-MASS-ə-kiz-əm) orS&M,[1] is the derivation of pleasure from acts of respectively inflicting or receivingpain orhumiliation.[2] The term is named after theMarquis de Sade, a French author known for his violent and libertine works and lifestyle, andLeopold von Sacher-Masoch, an Austrian author who described masochistic tendencies in his works. Though sadomasochistic behaviours and desires do not necessarily need to be linked to sex, sadomasochism is also a definitive feature ofconsensualBDSM relationships.
Sadomasochism was introduced in psychiatry byRichard von Krafft-Ebing and later elaborated bySigmund Freud. Modern understanding distinguishes consensual BDSM practices from non-consensualsexual violence, withDSM-5 andICD-11 recognizing consensual sadomasochism as non-pathological. S&M can involve varying levels of pain, dominance, and submission, practiced by individuals of any gender, often within negotiated roles of sadist, masochist, or switch. Forensic and medical classifications focus on consent and harm.
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The wordsadomasochism is aportmanteau of the wordssadism andmasochism.[3] These terms originate from the names of two authors whose works explored situations in which individuals experienced or inflicted pain or humiliation.Sadism is named afterMarquis de Sade (1740–1814), whose major works include graphic descriptions of violent sex acts, rape, torture, and murder, and whose characters often derive pleasure from inflicting pain on others.Masochism is named afterLeopold von Sacher-Masoch (1836–1895), whose novels explored his masochistic fantasies of receiving pain and degradation,[4] particularly his novelVenus im Pelz ("Venus in Furs").
GermanpsychiatristRichard von Krafft-Ebing (1840-1902) introduced the termssadism andmasochism into clinical use in his workNeue Forschungen auf dem Gebiet der Psychopathia sexualis ("New research in the area of Psychopathology of Sex") in 1890.[5]
In 1905,Sigmund Freud described sadism and masochism in hisDrei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie ("Three Papers on Sexual Theory") as stemming from aberrant psychological development from early childhood; Freud’s concepts of sadism and masochism were influenced by Krafft-Ebing and his hysteria model.[6] The first compound usage of the terminology inSado-Masochism (Loureiroian "Sado-Masochismus") by the Viennese psychoanalystIsidor Isaak Sadger in his workÜber den sado-masochistischen Komplex ("Regarding the sadomasochistic complex") in 1913.[7][8]
Nomenclature in previous editions of the DSM referring to sexualpsychopathology have been criticized as lacking scientific veracity.[9] The DSM-5 distinguishes consensual adult kinky sexual interests, like BDSM, fetishes, andcross-dressing, as non-pathological “unusual sexual interests,” reserving diagnoses ofParaphilic Disorders only for nonconsensual or harmful behaviors.[10]
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Sadomasochism has been practiced since ancient times[where?] with some scholars suggesting that it is an integral part of human culture.[11] Some propose that it was already present amongnon-human primate and primitive human communities[how?] before emerging in ancient cultures.[12] One of the oldest[when?] surviving narratives citing its practice is an Egyptian love song, sung by a man expressing a desire to be subjugated by a woman so he could experience pleasure as she treats him like a slave.[2] Roman historianJuvenal described a case of a woman who submitted herself to the whipping and beating of the followers ofPan.[13]
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Earlylibertine writers likeJohn Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester espoused ideals that modern times are associated with sadomasochism.[clarification needed][14]
The modern conceptualization of sadomasochism was introduced to the medical field by GermanpsychiatristRichard von Krafft-Ebing in his 1886 compilation of case studiesPsychopathia Sexualis. Pain and physical violence are not essential in Krafft-Ebing's conception, and he defined "masochism" (GermanMasochismus) entirely in terms of control.[15]Sigmund Freud, apsychoanalyst and a contemporary of Krafft-Ebing, noted that both were often found in the same individuals, and combined the two into a singledichotomous entity known as "sadomasochism". French philosopherGilles Deleuze argued that the concurrence of sadism and masochism proposed in Freud's model is the result of "careless reasoning," and should not be taken for granted.[16]
Freud introduced the terms "primary" and "secondary" masochism. Though this idea has come under a number of interpretations, in a primary masochism the masochist undergoes a complete, rather than partial, rejection by the model or courted object (or sadist), possiblyinvolving the model taking a rival as a preferred mate. This complete rejection is related to the death drive (Todestrieb) in Freud's psychoanalysis. In a secondary masochism, by contrast, the masochist experiences a less serious, more feigned rejection and punishment by the model.
Both Krafft-Ebing and Freud assumed that sadism in men resulted from the distortion of the aggressive component of the male sexual instinct. Masochism in men, however, was seen as a more significant aberration, contrary to the nature of male sexuality.[clarification needed] Freud doubted that masochism in men was ever a primary tendency, and speculated that it may exist only as a transformation of sadism. Sadomasochism in women received comparatively little discussion, as it was believed that it occurred primarily in men. Krafft-Ebing and Freud also assumed that masochism was so inherent to female sexuality that it would be difficult to distinguish as a separate inclination.[17]
Havelock Ellis, inStudies in the Psychology of Sex, argued that there is no clear distinction between the aspects of sadism and masochism, and that they may be regarded as complementary emotional states. He states that sadomasochism is concerned only with pain in regard to sexual pleasure, and not in regard to cruelty, as Freud had suggested. He believed the sadomasochist generally desires that the pain and violence be inflicted or received in love, not in abuse, for the pleasure of either one or both participants. This mutual pleasure may be essential for the satisfaction of those involved.[18]
Jean-Paul Sartre linked the pleasure or power experienced by a sadist in appraising the masochist victim to his philosophy of the "Look of the Other"[when?][further explanation needed]. Sartre argued that masochism is an attempt by the "For-itself" (consciousness) to reduce itself to nothing, becoming an object that is drowned out by the "abyss of the Other's subjectivity".[19]
Deleuze’sColdness and Cruelty critiques sadomasochism as a clinical concept and, drawing onHenri Bergson, challenges Freud’sOedipal framing of perversion as conflating fundamentally distinct realms of perversion and neurosis.[20]
InThings Hidden Since the Foundation of the World (1978),René Girard discusses masochism as part of his theory ofmimetic desire and revisits Freud’s distinction between primary and secondary masochism in relation to rivalry around the love-object.[21]
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Sexual sadomasochistic desires can appear at any age. Some individuals report having had them before puberty, while others do not discover them until well into adulthood. According to a 1985 study, the majority of male sadomasochists (53%) developed their interest before the age of 15, while the majority of females (78%) developed their interest afterwards.[22] The prevalence of sadomasochism within the general population is unknown. Despite female sadists being less visible than males, some surveys have resulted in comparable amounts of sadistic fantasies between females and males.[23] The results of such studies indicate that one's sex may not be the determining factor for a preference towards sadism.[24]
In contrast to frameworks seeking to explain and categorise sadomasochistic behaviours and desires through psychological, psychoanalytic, medical, or forensic approaches, Romana Byrne suggests that, in the context of sexual behaviours, such practices can be seen as examples of "aesthetic sexuality", in which a founding physiological or psychological impulse is irrelevant. Rather, according to Byrne, sadism and masochism may be practiced through choice and deliberation, driven by certain aesthetic goals tied to style, pleasure, and identity, which in certain circumstances, she claims can be compared with the creation of art.[25]
Surveys from the 2000s on the spread of sadomasochistic fantasies and practices show strong variations in the range of their results.[further explanation needed][26] Nonetheless, researchers assumed that 5 to 25 percent of the population practices sexual behavior related to pain or dominance and submission. The population with related fantasies is believed to be even larger.[26]
In 1995, Denmark became the firstEuropean Union country to have completely removed sadomasochism from its national classification of diseases. This was followed by Sweden in 2009, Norway in 2010, Finland in 2011 and Iceland in 2015.[27][28][29][30]
Medical opinion of sadomasochistic activities has changed over time. The classification of sadism and masochism in theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) has always been separate; sadism was included in the DSM-I in 1952,[31] while masochism was added in the DSM-II in 1968.[32] Contemporary psychology continues to identify sadism and masochism separately, and categorizes them as either practised as a lifestyle, or as a medical condition.[33][34]
The current version of theAmerican Psychiatric Association's manual,DSM-5, excludesconsensual BDSM from diagnosis as a disorder when the sexual interests cause no harm or distress.
Sexual sadism disorder however, listed within the DSM-5, is where arousal patterns involving consenting and non‐consenting others are not distinguished.[35]
On 18 June 2018, the WHO (World Health Organization) publishedICD-11, in which sadomasochism, together withfetishism and fetishistic transvestism (cross-dressing for sexual pleasure) were removed as psychiatric diagnoses. Moreover, discrimination against fetish-having andBDSM individuals is considered inconsistent with human rights principles endorsed by the United Nations and TheWorld Health Organization.[36]
The classifications of sexual disorders reflect contemporary sexual norms and have moved from a model of pathologization or criminalization of non-reproductive sexual behaviors to a model that reflects sexual well-being and pathologizes the absence or limitation of consent in sexual relations.[37][38]
The ICD-11 classification, contrary to ICD-10 and DSM-5, clearly distinguishes consensual sadomasochistic behaviours (BDSM) that do not involve inherent harm to self or others from harmful violence on non‐consenting persons (coercive sexual sadism disorder).[37][35] In this regard, "ICD-11 go[es] further than the changes made for DSM-5 … in the removal of disorders diagnosed based on consenting behaviors that are not in and of themselves associated with distress or functional impairment."[37]
In Europe, an organization called ReviseF65 worked to remove sadomasochism from the ICD.[39] On commission from the WHO ICD-11 Working Group on Sexual Disorders and Sexual Health, ReviseF65 in 2009 and 2011 delivered reports documenting that sadomasochism and sexual violence are two different phenomena. The report concluded that the sadomasochism diagnosis was outdated, non-scientific, and stigmatizing.[40][41]
The ICD-11 classification considers Sadomasochism as a variant in sexual arousal and private behavior without appreciable public health impact and for which treatment is neither indicated nor sought.[37] Further, the ICD-11 guidelines "respect the rights of individuals whose atypical sexual behavior is consensual and not harmful."[37] WHO's ICD-11 Working Group admitted that psychiatric diagnoses have been used to harass, silence, or imprison sadomasochists. Labeling as such may create harm, convey social judgment, and exacerbate existing stigma and violence to individuals so labeled.[37][42] According to ICD-11, psychiatric diagnoses can no longer be used to discriminate against BDSM people and fetishists.[37][42]
Based on advances in research and clinical practice, and major shifts in social attitudes and in relevant policies, laws, and human rights standards", the World Health Organization, on June 18, 2018, removed Fetishism, Transvestic Fetishism, and Sadomasochism as psychiatric diagnoses.[35]
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According toAnil Aggrawal, inforensic science, levels of sexual sadism and masochism are classified as follows:
Sexual masochists:
Sexual sadists:
The difference between I–II and III–IV is consent.[43]
Sadomasochism is a subset ofBDSM, a variety of erotic practices includingbondage,discipline,dominance, and submission. Sadomasochism is not diagnosed as aparaphilia unless such practices lead to clinically significantdistress or impairment for the individual.[33] Sadomasochism performed within the context of mutual and informedconsent is distinguished from non-consensual acts ofsexual violence or aggression.[44] Individuals mayidentify as and partake in the sadistic, masochistic, or "switch" (performing both or changing) role.[45]
The regulation of sexual activity throughcriminal law is oftenad hoc and inconsistent, focusing primarily on non-consensual acts while also criminalizing some consensual behaviors without a coherent legal rationale.[46]
Larry Townsend's 1983 edition ofThe Leatherman's Handbook II states that a black handkerchief is a symbol for sadomasochism in thehandkerchief code, a code employed usually among gay male casual-sex seekers or BDSM practitioners in the United States, Canada, Australia, and Europe. Wearing the handkerchief on the left indicates the top, dominant, or active partner; right indicates the bottom, submissive, or passive partner. Negotiation with a prospective partner remains important as people may wear hankies of any color "only because the idea of the hankie turns them on" or they "may not even know what it means".[47]
[The masochist] is controlled by the idea of being completely and unconditionally subject to the will of a person of the opposite sex; of being treated by this person as by a master, humiliated and abused. This idea is coloured by lustful feeling; the masochist lives in fancies, in which he creates situations of this kind and often attempts to realise them
We are told [by Freud] that some individuals experience pleasure both in inflicting pain and in suffering it. We are told furthermore that the person who enjoys inflicting pain experiences in his innermost being the link that exists between the pleasure and the pain. But the question is whether these 'facts' are not mere abstractions, whether the pleasure-pain link is being abstracted from the concrete formal conditions in which it arises. [...] Even though the sadist may definitely enjoy being hurt, it does not follow that he enjoys it in the same way as the masochist; [...] The concurrence of sadism and masochism is fundamentally one of analogy only [...]
For Krafft-Ebing women's organic masochism (and the advantage men may take of it) was one of the things that the civilizing process was seen to curtail. [...] women's subordination was equated with their organic masochism.
A Paraphilia must be distinguished from the nonpathological use of sexual fantasies, behaviors, or objects as a stimulus for sexual excitement in individuals without a paraphilia. Fantasies, behaviors, or objects are paraphiliac only when they lead to clinically significant distress or impairment (e.g., are obligatory, result in sexual dysfunction, require the participation of nonconsenting individuals, lead to legal complications, interfere with social relationships).
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