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The earliest human settlement in Sabah can be traced back to 20,000–30,000 years ago along theDarvel Bay area at the Madai-Baturong caves. The state has had a trading relationship with China starting from the 14th century AD. Sabah came under the influence of theBruneian Empire in the 14th and 15th centuries. The state was subsequently acquired by the BritishNorth Borneo Chartered Company in the 19th century. DuringWorld War II, North Borneo wasoccupied by the Japanese for three years. It became aBritish Crown Colony in 1946. On 31 August 1963, the newly-renamed Sabah was granted self-governance by the British. Following this, Sabah became one of the founding members of the Federation of Malaysia (established on 16 September 1963) alongside theCrown Colony of Sarawak, theColony of Singapore (expelled in 1965), and theFederation of Malaya (Peninsular Malaysia or West Malaysia). The federation was opposed by neighbouring Indonesia, which led to theIndonesia–Malaysia confrontation over three years along with the threats of annexation by the Philippines along with theSultanate of Sulu, threats which continue to the present day.[18]
Sabah exhibits notable diversity in ethnicity, culture and language. The head of state is the governor, also known as theYang di-Pertua Negeri, while the head of government is thechief minister andhis Cabinet. The government system is closely modelled on theWestminster parliamentary system and has one of the earliest state legislature systems in Malaysia. Sabah is divided into five administrative divisions and 27 districts.Malay is the official language of the state;[19][20] andIslam is the state religion, but other religions may be practised.[21] Sabah is known for its traditional musical instrument, thesompoton. Sabah has abundant natural resources, and its economy is stronglyexport-oriented. Its primary exports include oil, gas, timber andpalm oil. The other major industries are agriculture andecotourism.
Etymology
The origin of the nameSabah is uncertain, and many theories have arisen.[22] One theory is that when it was part of theBruneian Sultanate, it was referred to asSaba because of the presence a variety of banana calledpisang saba (also known aspisang menurun),[23][24] which are grown widely on the coast of the region and popular inBrunei.[25] TheBajau community referred to it aspisang jaba.[25]
Although the Chinese since theHan dynasty had been associated with the island ofBorneo,[27][28] they did not have any specific names for the area. Instead during theSong dynasty, they referred to the whole island asPo Ni (also pronouncedBo Ni), which is the same name they used to refer to the Sultanate of Brunei at the time.[22] Due to the location of Sabah in relation to Brunei, it has been suggested thatSabah was aBrunei Malay word meaning upstream or "in a northerly direction".[24][29][30] Another theory suggests that it came from theMalay wordsabak which means a place wherepalm sugar is extracted.[31]
It is nicknamed "Land Below the Wind" (Negeri Di Bawah Bayu inMalay language) as the state lies below thetyphoon belt ofEast Asia and is not often hit by typhoons.[32][33][34]
The earliest known human settlement in the region existed 20,000–30,000 years ago, as evidenced by stone tools and food remains found by excavations along theDarvel Bay area at Madai-Baturong caves near the Tingkayu River.[35] The earliest inhabitants in the area were thought to be similar toAboriginal Australians, but the reason for their disappearance is unknown.[36] In 2003, archaeologists discovered the Mansuli valley in theLahad Datu District, which dates back 235,000 years.[37] The archaeological site atSkull Hill (Bukit Tengkorak) inSemporna District was the largest pottery making site inNeolithic Southeast Asia.[38][39]
Sultanates of Brunei and Sulu influences
During the 7th century AD, a settled community known as Vijayapura, a tributary to theSrivijaya empire, was thought to have existed in northwest Borneo.[40][41] The earliest independent kingdom in Borneo, supposed to have existed from the 9th century, was Po Ni, as recorded in the Chinese geographical treatiseTaiping Huanyu Ji. It was believed that Po Ni existed at the mouth ofBrunei River and was the predecessor to the Bruneian Empire.[41][42] When China was conquered by theMongol Empire, all Chinese vassal states were subsequently controlled by the Mongol emperors of China. Early in 1292,Kublai Khan is said to have sent an expedition to northern Borneo,[43] before departing for theinvasion of Java in 1293.[44][45] As a result of this campaign, it is believed that many of his followers in addition to other Chinese traders eventually settled and established their own enclave atKinabatangan River.[43]
In the 14th century, Brunei and Sulu were part of the Majapahit Empire but in 1369, Sulu and the other Philippine kingdoms successfully rebelled and Sulu even attacked Brunei which was still a Majapahittributary,[46] the Sulus specifically invaded Northeast Borneo at Sabah[47] the Sulus were then repelled but Brunei became weakened.[48] In 1370, Brunei transferred its allegiance toMing dynasty China.[49][50] TheMaharaja Karna of Borneo then paid a visit toNanjing with his family until his death.[51] He was succeeded by his son Hsia-wang who agreed to send tribute to China once every three years.[49][50] After that, Chinesejunks came to northern Borneo with cargoes of spices,bird nests, shark fins,camphor,rattan andpearls.[52] More Chinese traders eventually settled in Kinabatangan, as stated in both Brunei and Sulu records.[49][53] A younger sister ofOng Sum Ping (Huang Senping), the governor of the Chinese settlement then marriedSultan Ahmad of Brunei.[49][54] Perhaps due to this relationship, a burial place with 2,000 wooden coffins, some estimated to be 1,000 years old, were discovered inAgop Batu Tulug Caves and around the Kinabatangan Valley area.[55][56] It is believed that this type of funeral culture was brought by traders fromMainland China andIndochina to northern Borneo as similar wooden coffins were also discovered in these countries.[55] This was in addition to the discovery ofChinese ceramics from a shipwreck inTanjung Simpang Mengayau estimated to be from between 960 and 1127 AD from the Song dynasty and the VietnameseĐông Sơn drum in Bukit Timbang Dayang onBanggi Island that was between 2,000 and 2,500 years old.[36][57][58]
During the reign of SultanBolkiah of Brunei between 1485 and 1524, the sultanate extended over northern Borneo and theSulu Archipelago, as far asKota Seludong (present-dayManila) with itsinfluence extending as far ofBanjarmasin,[59] taking advantage of maritime trade after thefall of Malacca to the Portuguese.[60][61] ManyBrunei Malays migrated to Sabah during this period, beginning after the Bruneian conquest of the territory in the 15th century.[62] But plagued by internal strife, civil war, piracy and thearrival of western powers, the Bruneian Empire began to shrink. The first Europeans to visit Brunei were the Portuguese, who described the capital of Brunei at the time as surrounded by astone wall.[60] The Spanish followed, arriving soon afterFerdinand Magellan's death in 1521, when the remaining members of his expedition sailed to the islands of Balambangan and Banggi in the northern tip Borneo; later, in theCastilian War of 1578, the Spanish who had sailed fromNew Spain and had taken Manila from Brunei, unsuccessfully declared war on Brunei by briefly occupying the capital before abandoning it.[26][58][63] The Sulu region gained its independence in 1578, forming theSultanate of Sulu.[64]
When thecivil war broke out in Brunei between sultansAbdul Hakkul Mubin andMuhyiddin, the Sultan of Sulu asserted their claim to Brunei's territories in northern Borneo.[63][65] The Sulus claimed that Sultan Muhyiddin had promised to cede the northern and eastern portion of Borneo to them in compensation for their help in settling the civil war.[63][66] The territory seems have not been ceded formally, but the Sulus continued to claim the territory, with Brunei weakened and unable to resist.[67] After the war with the Spanish, the area in northern Borneo began to fall under the influence of the Sulu Sultanate.[63][66] TheseafaringBajau-Suluk andIllanun people then arrived from the Sulu Archipelago and started settling on the coasts of north and eastern Borneo,[68] many of them fleeing from the oppression ofSpanish colonialism.[69] While the thalassocratic Brunei and Sulu sultanates controlled the western and eastern coasts of Sabah respectively, the interior region remained largely independent from either kingdoms.[70] TheSultanate of Bulungan's influence was limited to the Tawau area,[71] which came under the influence of the Sulu Sultanate before gaining its own rule after the 1878 treaty between the British and Spanish governments.[72]
The first concession treaty was signed by SultanAbdul Momin of Brunei on 29 December 1877.[31]
The second concession treaty was signed by SultanJamal ul-Azam of Sulu on 22 January 1878.[67]
In 1761,Alexander Dalrymple, an officer of the BritishEast India Company, concluded an agreement with the Sultan of Sulu to allow him to set up a trading post in northern Borneo, although this was to prove a failure.[73] Following theBritish occupation of Manila in 1763, the British freed SultanAlimuddin of Sulu from the Spanish and allowed him to return to his throne;[74] this was welcomed by the Sulu people and by 1765, Dalrymple managed to obtainBalambangan Island off the north coast of Borneo, having concluded a Treaty of Alliance and Commerce with the Sultan Alimuddin as a sign of gratitude for the British aid.[66][74] A small British factory was then established in 1773 on the island.[66] The British saw the island as a suitable location to control the trade route in the East, capable of diverting trade from the Spanish port ofManila and the Dutch port ofBatavia especially with its strategic location between theSouth China Sea andSulu Sea.[66] But the British abandoned the island two years later whenSulu pirates began attacking.[53] This forced the British to seek refuge in Brunei in 1774, and to temporarily abandon their attempts to find alternative sites for the factory.[66] Although an attempt was made in 1803 to turn Balambangan into a military station,[53] the British did not re-establish any further trading posts in the region untilStamford Rafflesfounded Singapore in 1819.[66]
In 1846, the Sultan of Brunei ceded the island ofLabuan on the west coast of Sabah to Britain through theTreaty of Labuan, and in 1848 it became aBritish Crown Colony.[53] Seeing the presence of British in Labuan, the American consul in Brunei, Claude Lee Moses, obtained a ten-year lease in 1865 for a piece of land in northern Borneo. Moses then passed the land to theAmerican Trading Company of Borneo, owned byJoseph William Torrey,Thomas Bradley Harris and Chinese investors.[53][75] The company chooseKimanis (which they renamed "Ellena") as a site for a settlement. Requests for financial backing from the US government proved futile and the settlement was later abandoned. Before he left, Torrey managed to sell all his rights to the Austrian Consul in Hong Kong,Gustav von Overbeck. Overbeck then went to Brunei, where he met theTemenggong to renew theconcession.[75] Brunei agreed to cede all territory in northern Borneo under its control, with the Sultan receiving an annual payment of 12,000Spanish dollars, while the Temenggong received a sum of 3,000.[66]
In 1872, the Sultanate of Sulu granted use of an area of land in the Sandakan Bay to William Frederick Schuck, a former agent of the German consular service who had lived on the Sulu island ofJolo since 1864. The arrival of German warshipSMS Nymphe at the Sulu Sea in 1872 to investigate theSulu-Spanish conflict made the sultanate believe Schuck was connected with theGerman government.[76] The sultanate authorised Schuck to establish a trading port to monopolise therattan trade in the northeast coast, where Schuck could operate freely, without the Spanish blockade.[77] He continued this operation until this land also was ceded to Overbeck, with the Sultan receiving an annual payment of $5,000, by a treaty signed in 1878.[66]
After a series of transfers, Overbeck tried to sell the territory toGermany,Austria-Hungary andItaly but they rejected his offer.[75] Overbeck then co-operated with the British Dent brothers (Alfred Dent and Edward Dent) for financial backing to develop the land, with the Dent company persuading him that any investors would need guarantees of British military and diplomatic support.[75] Overbeck agreed to this co-operation, especially with regard to the counterclaims of the Sultan of Sulu, part of whose territory in the Sulu Archipelago had been occupied by Spain.[75] Overbeck, however, withdrew in 1879 and his treaty rights were transferred to Alfred Dent, who in 1881 formed the North Borneo Provisional Association Ltd to administer the territory.[78][79][80] In the following year,Kudat was made its capital but due to frequent pirate attacks, the capital was moved toSandakan in 1884.[40] To prevent further disputes over intervention, the governments of the United Kingdom, Spain and Germany signed theMadrid Protocol of 1885, recognising the sovereignty of theKing of Spain over the Sulu Archipelago in return for the relinquishment of all Spanish claims over northern Borneo.[81] The arrival of the company brought prosperity to the residents of northern Borneo, with the company allowing indigenous communities to continue their traditional lifestyles, but imposing laws againstheadhunting,ethnic feuds,slave trade, and piracy.[82][83] North Borneo then became aprotectorate of the United Kingdom in 1888 despite facing local resistance from 1894 to 1900 byMat Salleh andAntanum in 1915.[53][83]
The Japanese forces landed in Labuan on 3 January 1942,[84] during theSecond World War, and later invaded the rest of northern Borneo.[53] From 1942 to 1945, Japanese forces occupied North Borneo, along with most of the rest of the island, as part of theEmpire of Japan. The British saw Japanese advances in the area as motivated by political and territorial ambitions rather than economic factors.[85] The residing British and the locals were compelled to obey and gave in to the brutality of the Japanese.[86] The occupation drove many people from coastal towns to the interior, fleeing the Japanese and seeking food.[87] TheMalays generally appeared to be favoured by the Japanese, although some of them faced repression, while other groups such as the Chinese and indigenous peoples were severely repressed.[88] The Chinese were already resisting the Japanese occupation, especially with theSino-Japanese War in mainland China.[89] Local Chinese formed a resistance, known as the Kinabalu Guerillas, led byAlbert Kwok, with broad support from various ethnic groups in northern Borneo such asDusun, Murut, Suluk and Illanun peoples. The movement was also supported byMustapha Harun.[90] Kwok along with many other sympathisers were, however, executed after the Japanese foiled their movement in theJesselton Revolt.[87][91]
As part of theBorneo campaign to retake the territory,Allied forces bombed most of the major towns under Japanese control, including Sandakan, which was razed to the ground. The Japanese ran a brutalprisoner of war camp known asSandakan camp.[92] The majority of the POWs were British and Australian soldiers captured after thefall of Malaya andSingapore.[93][94] The prisoners suffered inhuman conditions, and amidst continuous Allied bombardments, the Japanese forced them to march toRanau, about 260 kilometres (160 mi) away, in an event known as theSandakan Death March.[95] The number of prisoners were reduced to 2,345, with many of them killed en route either byfriendly fire or by the Japanese. Only six of the several hundred Australian prisoners lived to see the war's end.[96] In addition, of the total of 17,488Javanese labourers brought in by the Japanese during the occupation, only 1,500 survived mainly due to starvation, harsh working conditions and maltreatment.[87] In March 1945, Australian forces launchedOperation Agas to gather intelligence in the region and launch guerrilla warfare against the Japanese.[97] TheAustralian Imperial Forces initiated theBattle of North Borneo on 10 June 1945.[98][99] Japan's remaining forces surrendered on 2 September 1945, following theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.[100]
After the Japanese surrender, North Borneo was administered by theBritish Military Administration and on 15 July 1946 became aBritish Crown colony.[53][101] TheCrown Colony of Labuan was integrated into this new colony. During the ceremony, both theUnion Jack andFlag of the Republic of China were raised from the bullet-ridden Jesselton Survey Hall building.[101] The Chinese were represented by Philip Lee who had been part of the resistance movement against the Japanese and who eventually supported the transfer of power to the Crown colony.[101] He said: "Let their blood be the pledge of what we wish to be—His Majesty's most devoted subjects."[101]
Due to massive destruction in Sandakan during the war, Jesselton was chosen to replace the capital while the Crown continued to rule North Borneo until 1963. The Crown colony government established many departments to oversee the welfare of its residents and to revive the economy of North Borneo after the war.[102] UponPhilippine independence in 1946, seven of the British-controlledTurtle Islands (includingCagayan de Tawi-Tawi andMangsee Islands) off the north coast of Borneo were ceded to the Philippines as had been negotiated by the American and British colonial governments.[103][104]
On 31 August 1963, North Borneoattained self-governance.[5][6][105][106] TheCobbold Commission had been set up in 1962, to determine whether the people of Sabah and Sarawak favoured the proposed union of a new federation called Malaysia, and found that the union was generally favoured by the people.[107] Most ethnic community leaders of Sabah, namely, Mustapha Harun representing the native Muslims,Donald Stephens representing the non-Muslim natives, and Khoo Siak Chew representing the Chinese, would eventually support the union.[90][108][109] After a discussion culminating in theMalaysia Agreement and20-point agreement, on 16 September 1963 North Borneo (as Sabah) was united with Malaya, Sarawak and Singapore, to form the independentMalaysia.[110][111]
From before the formation of Malaysia until 1966,Indonesia adopted a hostile policy towards British-backed Malaya, leading to theIndonesia–Malaysia confrontation after Malaysia was established.[112] The war stemmed from what Indonesian presidentSukarno perceived as an expansion of British influence in the region and his intention to wrest control over all of Borneo under theGreater Indonesian concept.[113] Meanwhile, thePhilippines, beginning with presidentDiosdado Macapagal on 22 June 1962,claimed Sabah through the heirs of the Sultanate of Sulu.[114][115] Macapagal, considering Sabah to be property of the Sultanate of Sulu, saw the attempt to integrate Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei into the Federation of Malaysia as "trying to impose authority of Malaya into these states".[114]
Following the successful formation of Malaysia, Donald Stephens became the first chief minister of Sabah. The firstYang di-Pertua Negara (later restyledYang di-Pertua Negeri in 1976) was Mustapha Harun.[116] The leaders of Sabah demanded that theirfreedom of religion be respected, that all lands in the territory be under the power of state government, and that native customs and traditions be respected and upheld by the federal government; declaring that in return Sabahans would pledge their loyalty to the Malaysian federal government. Anoath stone was officiated by Donald Stephens on 31 August 1964 inKeningau as a remembrance to the agreement and promise for reference in the future.[117] Sabah held its first state election in 1967.[118] In the same year, the name of the state capital was changed from "Jesselton" to "Kota Kinabalu".[119]
Anairplane crash on 6 June 1976 killed Stephens along with four other state cabinet ministers.[120] On 14 June 1976, the stategovernment of Sabah led by the new chief ministerHarris Salleh signed an agreement withPetronas, the federal government-owned oil and gas company, granting it the right to extract and earn revenue from petroleum found in the territorial waters of Sabah in exchange for 5% in annual revenue asroyalties based on the 1974 Petroleum Development Act.[121] The state government of Sabah cededLabuan to the Malaysian federal government, and Labuan became afederal territory on 16 April 1984.[122] In 2000, the state capital Kota Kinabalu was grantedcity status, making it the6th city in Malaysia and the first city in the state.[123] Prior to aterritorial dispute between Indonesia and Malaysia since 1969 over two islands ofLigitan andSipadan in theCelebes Sea, theInternational Court of Justice (ICJ) made a final decision to award both islands to Malaysia in 2002 based on their "effective occupation".[124][125]
In February 2013, Sabah'sLahad Datu District waspenetrated by followers ofJamalul Kiram III, the self-proclaimedSultan ofSulu. In response, Malaysian military forces were deployed to the region, which resulted in 72 deaths (56 Sultanate militants, nine Malaysian security personnel, and six civilians). Following the elimination of insurgents, anEastern Sabah Security Command was established.[126][127][128]
Sabah (together with its neighbour Sarawak) has a greater level of autonomy in administration, immigration, and judiciary which differentiates it from the Malaysian Peninsula states. TheYang di-Pertua Negeri is thehead of state although its functions are largely ceremonial.[129] Next in the hierarchy are thestate legislative assembly and the state cabinet.[26][129] Thechief minister is thehead of government as well the leader of the state cabinet.[129] The legislature is based on theWestminster system and therefore the chief minister is appointed based on his or her ability to command the majority of the state assembly.[26][130] While local authorities being fully appointed by the state government owing to the suspension of local elections by the federal government. Legislation regarding state elections is within the powers of the federal government and not the state.[26] The assembly meets at the state capital, Kota Kinabalu. Members of the state assembly are elected from 73 constituencies which are delineated by theElection Commission of Malaysia and do not necessarily have the same voter population sizes.[131] A general election for representatives in the state assembly must be held every five years, when the seats are subject ofuniversal suffrage for all citizens above 21 years of age. Sabah is also represented in thefederal parliament by 25 members elected from the same number of constituencies.
Prior to the formation of Malaysia in 1963, the thenNorth Borneo interim government submitted a20-point agreement to theMalayan government as conditions before North Borneo would join the federation. Subsequently, North Borneo legislative assembly agreed on the formation of Malaysia on the conditions that North Borneo's rights would be safeguarded. North Borneo then entered Malaysia as anautonomous state with autonomous laws in immigration control andNative Customary Rights (NCR), and the territory name was changed to "Sabah". However, under the administration of theUnited Sabah National Organisation (USNO) led by Mustapha Harun, this autonomy has been gradually eroded with federal government influence and hegemony with a popular belief among Sabahans that both USNO and UMNO have been working together in permittingillegal immigrants from the southern Philippines and Indonesia to stay in the state and become citizens to vote for Muslim parties.[132] This was continued under theSabah People's United Front (BERJAYA) administration led by Harris Salleh with a total of 73,000Filipino refugees from the southern Philippines were registered.[133] In addition, the cession of Labuan island to federal government by the Sabah state government under BERJAYA rule and unequal sharing and exploitation of Sabah's resources of petroleum have become grievances often raised by Sabahans, which has resulted in strong anti-federal sentiments and even occasional call forsecession from the federation among the people of Sabah.[87] Those who spread secession agenda often landed in law enforcement hand due to the controversial ISA act, such as1991 Sabah political arrests.[134]
Until the2008 Malaysian general election, Sabah along with the states ofKelantan andTerengganu, were the only three states in Malaysia that had ever been ruled byopposition parties not part of the ruling BN coalition. UnderJoseph Pairin Kitingan, PBS formed the state government after winning the1985 state election and ruled Sabah until 1994. In the1994 state election, despite PBS winning the elections, subsequent cross-overs of PBS assembly members to the BN component party resulted in BN having the majority of seats and hence took over the helm of the state government.[135] A unique feature of Sabah politics was a policy initiated by Prime MinisterMahathir Mohamad in 1994 whereby the chief minister's post is rotated among the coalition parties every two years regardless of the party in power at the time, thus theoretically giving an equal amount of time for each major ethnic group to rule the state. However, in practice, this system was problematic as it is too short for any leader to carry out long-term plans.[136] This practice was then since stopped.[137] Political intervention by the federal authorities, for example, an introduction and later abolition of the chief minister's post and earlierPBS-BERJAYA conflict in 1985, along with co-opting rival factions in East Malaysia, are examples of political tactics used by the then UMNO-led federal government to control and manage the autonomous power of the Borneo states.[138] The federal government however tend to view that these actions are justifiable as the display ofparochialism among East Malaysians is not in harmony with nation building. This complicated Federal-State relationship has become a source of major contention in Sabah politics.[87]
In the2018 general election,Shafie Apdal'sSabah Heritage Party (WARISAN) secured an electoral pact with theDemocratic Action Party (DAP) andPeople's Justice Party (PKR) of thePakatan Harapan (PH) coalition. On 9 May 2018, this coalition and the Barisan Nasional ended in a tie.[139] However, as six BN elected representatives crossed over to WARISAN,[140][141] and after a short-lived constitutional crisis,[142][143] a coalition of WARISAN, DAP and PKR formed a majority government on 12 May 2018 and became effective since that day.[144][145][146][147] In conjunction with the celebration ofMalaysia Day in 2018 under the new government, Prime Minister Mahathir has promised to restore Sabah (together with Sarawak) status as an equal partner to Malaya who together forming the Malaysian federation in accordance to the Malaysia Agreement.[148][149] However, through the process of the proposedamendment to the Constitution of Malaysia in 2019, the first bill for the amendment failed to pass following the failure to reach two-thirds majority support (148 votes) in the Parliament with only 138 agreed with the move while 59 abstained from the voting.[150][151] Subsequently, asecond bill for the amendment was tabled in 2021 and was passed unanimously by the Malaysian Parliament.[152]
Sabah consists of five administrative divisions, which are in turn divided into 30 districts. For each district, the state government appoints a village headman (known asketua kampung) for each village. The administrative divisions were inherited from the provinces of the British administration.[153] During the British rule, aResident was appointed to govern each division and provided with a palace (Istana).[154] The post of the Resident was abolished and replaced with district officers for each of the district when North Borneo became part of Malaysia. As in the rest of Malaysia, local government comes under the purview of state government.[26] However, ever since the suspension of local government elections in the midst of theMalayan Emergency, which was much less intense in Sabah than it was in the rest of the country, there have been no local elections. Local authorities have their officials appointed by the executive council of the state government.[155][156]
The Ninth Schedule of the Constitution of Malaysia states that theMalaysian federal government is solely responsible for foreign policy and military forces in the country.[158] Before the formation of Malaysia, North Borneo security was the responsibility of Great Britain, Australia andNew Zealand.[159] In the wake of threats of "annexation" from the Philippines after PresidentFerdinand Marcos signed a bill by including Sabah as part the Republic of the Philippines on its maritime baselines in theAct of Congress on 18 September 1968,[160] the British responds in the next day by sending theirHawker Hunterfighter-bomber jets to Kota Kinabalu with the jets stopped over at theClark Air Base not far from the Philippines capital of Manila.[161]British Army senior officerMichael Carver then reminded the Philippines that Britain would honour its obligations under theAnglo-Malayan Defence Agreement (AMDA) if fighting broke out.[161] In addition, a large flotilla of British warships would sail to Philippines waters near Sabah en route from Singapore along with the participation ofANZUS forces.[161] The AMDA treaty have since been replaced by theFive Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA) although the present treaty does not include East Malaysian states as its main priority, British security protection intervention can still be included over the two states.[160][162] Citing in 1971 when British Prime MinisterEdward Heath been asked inParliament of London on what threats the British intended to counter under the FPDA, the Prime Minister replied: to "forces outside [Malaysia] in southernThailand and north of the Malaysian border".[note 1]
Map of the British North Borneo with the yellow area covered the Philippine claim to eastern Sabah, presented by the Philippine Government to ICJ on 25 June 2001[165]
Sabah has had several territorial disputes with neighbouring Indonesia and the Philippines. In 2002, both Malaysia and Indonesia submitted to arbitration by the ICJ on a territorial dispute over the Ligitan and Sipadan islands which were later won by Malaysia.[124][125] There are also several other disputes yet to be settled with Indonesia over the overlapping claims on theAmbalat continental shelf in the Celebes Sea and land border dispute between Sabah andNorth Kalimantan.[166] Malaysia's claim over a portion of theSpratly Islands is also based on sharing a continental shelf with Sabah.[167]
The Philippines claims much of eastern Sabah.[49][65][168] It claims that the territory is connected with the Sultanate of Sulu and was only leased to the North Borneo Chartered Company in 1878 with the Sultanate's sovereignty never being relinquished.[115] Malaysia however, considers this dispute as a "non-issue", as it interprets the 1878 agreement as that ofcession and that it deems that the residents of Sabah had exercised their right toself-determination when they joined to form the Malaysian federation in 1963.[169] A group of 200 armed Filipinos identifying themselves as the Royal Security Forces of the Sultanate of Sulu and North Borneo landed in the district ofLahad Datu and took control of the Tanduo village in 2013, with the objective of reinforcing the Philippine claim over the eastern region of Sabah. This Lahad Datu incident resulted in the deaths of 56 members of the Sulu group, nine Malaysian security force members including six civilians.[127][128]
Before this incident, Malaysia continued to pay an annual cession payment amounting to roughly $1,000 to the indirect heirs of the Sultan honouring an 1878 agreement, whereNorth Borneo – today's Sabah – was conceded by the Sultan of Sulu to a British company.[170] However, the Malaysian government halted the payments after this incident. As a result, the self-proclaimed Sulu heirs pursued this case for legal arbitration vis-a-vis the original commercial deal. Since then, the Sulu claimants have been accused of "forum shopping".[170] In 2017, the heirs showed their intention to start arbitration in Spain and asked for $32.2 billion in compensation. In 2019, Malaysia responded for the first time. The attorney general at the time offered to start making yearly payments again and to pay 48,000 Malaysian ringgit (about $10,400) for past dues and interest, but only if the heirs gave up their claim.[171][172] The heirs did not accept this offer and the case, led by Spanish arbiterGonzalo Stampa, continued without Malaysia being involved. In February 2022, Gonzalo Stampa awarded US$14.9 billion to the Sultan of Sulu's heirs, who then attempted to enforce the award against Malaysian state-owned assets around the world.[173] It is noteworthy that on 27 June 2023, the Hague Court of Appeal dismissed the Sulus' bid and ruled in favour of the Malaysian government, which hailed the decision as a "landmark victory".[174] In 2024 Stampa was convicted of contempt of court for "knowingly disobeying rulings and orders from the Madrid High Court of Justice", and sentenced to six months in prison.[175] On 3 October 2024, Malaysia's Federal Court upheld the death sentences of seven Filipino men involved in the 2013 Lahad Datu invasion, which had resulted in the deaths of nine Malaysian security personnel.[176] The ruling was seen as a step toward ensuring justice and strengthening national security in Malaysia.[177]
On 7 November 2024, the French Court of Cassation—the highest court in the French judicial system—annulled a $15 billion arbitration ruling against Malaysia.[178] This decision marked a significant legal victory for Malaysia and reinforced its sovereignty in a dispute with the self-proclaimed Sulu heirs.[178] The ruling highlighted irregularities in the arbitration process led byGonzalo Stampa and raised concerns about practices such as forum shopping and unregulated litigation funding in European courts.[179][180] The French court's decision was deemed a significant "win" for Malaysia that effectively marked the end of the Sulu case by several publications, including Law.com andLaw360.[180][181]Keith Ellison, former vice-chairman of the Democratic National Committee andMinnesota attorney general, pointed out that the case highlighted the enormous scope for "corruption", irresponsible profiteering, and foreign influence operations to subvert arbitration proceedings".[182]
The French court had declared the arbitration clause in the case invalid. It mainatined that the agreement appointed the British Consul General in Brunei as arbitrator, and since the position no longer existed, the arbitration could not take place.[183] The verdict underscored the need for international arbitration agreements to be interpreted in accordance with the principles of good faith and utility, "without reference to the law of any State".[184]
Professor Caroline Kleiner of the University of Paris Cité called the ruling a major shift in arbitration law and hearing. In her review published in Kluwer Law International, she said the decision would help French courts participate in the development of international law on the enforcement of foreign arbitral awards per a universalist approach, rather than the trend of exceptionalism that is currently being pursued.[185]
Following Malaysia's legal victory in the French Court,Paul Cohen argued that the ruling allows the Sulu heirs to lease Sabah to other nations, such as China and the Philippines. He also filed a fresh $18 billion claim against Spain, alleging that his clients had been denied justice. Cohen also suggested that accepting the French court's decision implies recognition of the Sulu Sultanate descendants' sovereignty over Sabah, which Malaysia disputes.[186] In response, Malaysia'sMinister of Law and Institutional Reform in the Prime Minister Department,Azalina Othman dismissed Cohen's statements as baseless and reaffirmed Sabah's status as part of Malaysia, citing historical and legal foundations such as the Cobbold Commission and the 1963 referendum.[187] The Philippine claim can be originated based on three historical events; such as the Brunei Civil War from 1660 until 1673, treaty betweenDutch East Indies and theBulungan Sultanate in 1850 and treaty between SultanJamal ul-Azam with Overbeck in 1878.[65][188]
Further attempts by several Filipino politicians such as Ferdinand Marcos to "destabilise" Sabah proved to be futile and led to theJabidah massacre inCorregidor Island, Philippines.[161][189] As a consequence, this led the Malaysian government to once supporting theinsurgency in southern Philippines.[190][191] Although the Philippine claim to Sabah has not been actively pursued for some years, some Filipino politicians have promised to bring it up again,[192] while the Malaysian government have asked the Philippines not tothreaten ties over such issue.[193] To further discourage pursuit of the claim the Malaysian government passed abarter trade ban, at the behest of theRoyal Malaysia Police and theMalaysian Deputy Prime Minister, between Malaysia and the Philippines as it was seen to only benefit one side while threatening the security of the state.[194][195] The ban was positively received by many Sabahans, although there was opposition fromother political parties as well as from the residents of neighbouring Philippine islands due to a sharp rise in living costs after the ban took effect.[196] Barter trade activity was resumed on 1 February 2017 upon the agreement by both Malaysian and the Philippine authorities to fortify their respective borders with increased surveillance and security enforcement.[197][198] Despite the return of barter trade activity, the state of Sabah maintained that they will remain vigilant in trading with the Philippines.[199] In 2016, Philippine PresidentRodrigo Duterte and Malaysian Prime MinisterNajib Razak have agreed to set aside the two countries' dispute over Sabah for the meantime.[200]
Geography
Sabah is located south of thetyphoon belt, making it insusceptible to the devastating effects of the typhoons which frequently batter the neighbouringPhilippines,[32] such as theTyphoon Haiyan in 2013.[201]
The total land area of Sabah is nearly 73,904 square kilometres (28,534 sq mi)[202] surrounded by the South China Sea in the west, Sulu Sea in the northeast and Celebes Sea in the southeast.[2] Sabah has a total of 1,743 kilometres (1,083 mi) coastline, of which 295.5 kilometres (183.6 mi) have beeneroding.[203] Because of Sabah coastline facing three seas, the state receive an extensive marine resources.[204] In 1961, Sabah including neighbouringSarawak, which had been included in theInternational Maritime Organization (IMO) through the participation of the United Kingdom, became joint associate members of the IMO.[205] Itsexclusive economic zone (EEZ) is much larger towards the South China Sea and Celebes Sea than to the Sulu Sea.[206] The state coastline is covered withmangrove andnipah forests. The mangroves cover about 331,325 hectares of the state land and constitute 57% of the total mangroves in the country.[206] Both coastal areas in the west coast and east coast are entirely dominating by sand beaches, while in sheltered areas the sand was mixed with mud.[207] The northern area ofTanjung Simpang Mengayau has a type ofpocket beach.[208] The areas in the west coast has a large freshwaterwetlands, with the Klias Peninsula hosts a large area of tidal wetlands[209] and a wetland centre known as theKota Kinabalu Wetland Centre was designated as aRamsar site in 2016.[210] The western part of Sabah is generally mountainous, containing three highest peak. The mainmountain ranges is theCrocker Range with several mountains varying height from about 1,000 metres to 4,000 metres. Adjacent to the Crocker Range is theTrus Madi Range withMount Trus Madi, with a height of 2,642 metres.[211] The highest peak is theMount Kinabalu, with a height around 4,095 metres.[212] It isone of the highest peak between theHimalayas andNew Guinea.[213] While located not far from Mount Kinabalu isMount Tambuyukon, with a height of 2,579 metres.[214]
These mountains and hills are traversed by an extensive network of river valleys and are in most cases covered with dense rainforest. There are lower ranges of hills extending towards the western coasts, southern plains, and the interior or central part of Sabah. The central and eastern portions of Sabah are generally lower mountain ranges and plains with occasional hills. In the east coast located the Kinabatangan River, which is the second-longest river in Malaysia afterRajang River in Sarawak with a length of 560 kilometres.[215] The river begins from the western ranges and snakes its way through the central region towards the east coast out into the Sulu Sea. Other major rivers including the Kalabakan River,Kolopis River, Liwagu River, Padas River, Paitan River, Segama River and Sugut River, in addition to Babagon River, Bengkoka River, Kadamaian River, Kalumpang River, Kiulu River, Mawao River, Membakut River, Mesapol River, Nabawan River, Papar River, Pensiangan River, Tamparuli River and Wario River.[216]
The land of Sabah is located in atropical geography withequatorial climate. It experiences twomonsoon seasons of northeast and southwest. The northeast monsoon occurs from November to March with heavy rains, while the southwest monsoon prevails from May to September with less rainfall.[216] It also received two inter-monsoon season from April to May and September to October. The average daily temperature varies from 27 °C (81 °F) to 34 °C (93 °F), with a considerable amount of rain from 1,800 millimetres to 4,000 millimetres.[216] The coastal areas occasionally experience severe storms as the state is situated south of thetyphoon belt.[216] Due to its location is very close to the typhoon belt, Sabah experience the worstTropical Storm Greg on 25 December 1996.[217] The storm left more than 100 people dead, with another 200–300 missing, 3,000–4,000 people left homeless.[218][219] As Sabah also lies within theSunda Plate with a compression from theAustralian andPhilippine Plate, it is prone to earthquake with the state itself have experienced three major earthquakes since 1923, with the2015 earthquake being the latest major earthquake.[220] The Crocker Ranges together with Mount Kinabalu was formed since during the middleMiocene period after being uplifted by the SabahOrogeny through compression.[221] There was some snow here in 1975 and 1993.[222]
Blue-eared kingfisher in the lower Kinabatangan River area, which is endemic to the island of Borneo. Kingfisher is also once a state bird of Sabah and featured inone of its coat of arms.
TheSemporna Peninsula on the north-eastern coast of Sabah is identified as a hotspot of high marine biodiversity importance in theCoral Triangle.[223]
The jungles of Sabah host a diverse array of plant and animal species. Most of Sabah's biodiversity is located in theforest reserve areas, which formed half of its total landmass of 7.34 million hectares.[224] Its forest reserve are part of the 20 million hectares equatorial rainforests demarcated under the "Heart of Borneo" initiative.[224] The forests surrounding the river valley of Kinabatangan River is the largest forest-covered floodplain in Malaysia.[225] TheCrocker Range National Park is the largestnational park in the state, covering an area of 139,919 hectares. Most of the park area are covered in dense forest and important as a water catchment area with itsheadwater connecting to five major rivers in the west coast area.[226]Kinabalu National Park was inscribed as aWorld Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2000 for its richness in plant diversity combined with its unique geological, topographical, and climatic conditions.[227] The park hosts more than 4,500 species of flora and fauna, including 326 bird and around 100 mammal species along with over 110 land snail species.[228][229]
TheTawau Hills National Park established as a naturalwater catchment area. The park contains rugged volcanic landscapes including ahot spring and spectacular waterfalls. Bordering the Philippine Turtle Islands is theTurtle Islands National Park, it consists of three islands of Selingaan, Bakkungan Kechil and Gulisaan which is notable as the nesting place forgreen turtle andhawksbill sea turtle.[236] Other important wildlife regions in Sabah include theMaliau Basin,Danum Valley,Tabin, Imbak Canyon andSepilok. These places are either designated as national parks, wildlife reserves, virgin jungle reserves, or protection forest reserve. Beyond the coasts of Sabah lie a number of islands rich withcoral reefs such as Ligitan, Sipadan, Selingaan, Tiga andLayang-Layang (Swallow Reef). Other main islands including theJambongan,Timbun Mata, Bum Bum and the dividedSebatik. The Sabah state government has enacted several laws to protect its forests and endangered wildlife species under the Animals Ordinance 1962,[237] Forest Enactment 1968[238] and theWildlife Conservation Enactment 1997[239] among others.[240][241] Under the Wildlife Conservation Enactment, any persons hunting inside conservation lands are liable for imprisonment for five years and fined withRM50,000.[239] The state government also plans to implement seasonal huntings as part of its conservation efforts to prevent the continuous lose of its endangered wildlife species while maintaining the state indigenous hunting traditions.[242]
Conservation issues
A lorry carrying timber in Tawau. Logging has contributed over 50% of the state revenue.[243]
Since the post-World War II timber boom driven by the need of raw materials fromindustrial countries, Sabah forests have been gradually eroded by uncontrolled timber exploitation and the conversion of Sabah forest lands intopalm oil plantations.[244] Since 1970, forestry sector have contributed for over 50% of the state revenue, of which a study conducted in 1997 revealed the state had almost depleted all of itsvirgin forests outside the conservation areas.[243] The state government were determined to maintain the state biodiversity while to make sure the state economy continue to alive.[245] While in the same time facing hard task to control such activities although there is laws to prevent it.[241] The need for development and basic necessities also became an issue while to preserving the nature.[246][247] Mining activities had directly releasedpollutants of heavy metals into rivers, reservoirs, ponds and affecting groundwater through the leaching of minetailings. An environmental report released in 1994 reported the presence of heavy metal at the Damit/Tuaran River that exceeded the water quality safe levels for consumption. The water in Liwagu River also reported the presence of heavy metal which was believed to be originated from theMamut Mine.[248]Forest fire also have become the latest concern due to drought and fires set by irresponsible farmers or individuals such as what happened in the2016 forest fires, where thousands of hectares of forest reserves inBinsuluk on the west coast of Sabah were lost.[249][250]
Aerial view ofMamut Mine with water that has filled the mine. Its water is reported to be dangerous for consumption due to the high presence ofheavy metals.
Rampantfish bombing has destroyed many coral reefs and affecting fisheries production in the state.[251][252] Moreover, the illegal activities of the extraction of river sand and gravel in the rivers of Padas, Papar and Tuaran had become the latest concern along with the wildlife and marine hunting andpoaching.[248] Due to severe deforestation along with massive wildlife and marine poaching, theSumatran rhino have been declared as extinct in early 2015.[253] Some other species that was threatened with extinction isbanteng,[254]bearded pig,[255]clouded leopard,dugong,[256]elephant,false gharial, green turtle, hawksbill sea turtle,orangutan,pangolin,[257]proboscis monkey,[258]river shark,[259]roughnose stingray,[259]sambar deer,shark andsun bear.[255][260] Although the indigenous community are also involved in hunting, they hunt based on theirspiritual believes and practice, and on a small scale, which differentiates them from poachers.[261] Well-known indigenous practices, such as "maganu totuo" or "montok kosukopan", "tuwa di powigian", "managal" or "tagal" and "meminting", have helped to maintain resources and prevent their depletion.[261]
Sabah's economy is mainly based onprimary sector such as agriculture, forestry andpetroleum.[2][265] Currently, thetertiary sector plays an important part to the state economy, especially in tourism and services. With its richness in biodiversity, the state is offeringecotourism. Although in recent years the tourism industry has been affected byattacks and kidnapping of tourists by militant groups based in the southern Philippines, it remained stable with the increase of security in eastern Sabah and the Sulu Sea.[266] The tourism sector contribute 10% share of the stateGross domestic product (GDP) and was predicted to increase more.[267] Majority of the tourists come from China (60.3%), followed bySouth Korea (33.9%), Australia (16.3%) andTaiwan (8.3%).[268] Tourism plays a crucial role in the state's economy as the third largest income generating sectors with the state itself recorded a total of 3,879,413 tourist arrivals in 2018, a growth of 5.3% compared to 3,684,734 in 2017.[269] Since the 1950s,rubber andcopra are the main source of agricultural economy of North Borneo.[270] The timber industry started to emerged in the 1960s due to high demand of raw materials from industrial countries. This was however replaced by petroleum in the 1970s after the discovery of oil in the area of west coast Sabah.[271] In the same year,cocoa andpalm oil was added to the list.[265][272] The Sabah state government managed to increase the state fund from RM6 million to RM12 billion and poverty was down by almost half to 33.1% in 1980.[87] The state rapid development on primary sector has attracted thosejob seekers in neighbouring Indonesia and the Philippines as the state labour force itself are not sufficient.[273] The state GDP at the time ranked behindSelangor andKuala Lumpur, being the third richest although the manufacturing sector remained small.[248][274] However, by 2000, the state started to become the poorest as it still dependent on natural resources as its primary sources of income comparing to thosesecondary sector producer states.[275] Thus theSabah Development Corridor (SDC) was established in 2008 by Prime MinisterAbdullah Ahmad Badawi with a total investment of RM105 billion for 18 years to increase the state GDP to RM63.2 billion by 2025.[276] Around RM5.83 billion were allocated each year for infrastructures development along with the creation of 900,000 jobs.[276] The federal government targeted to eradicate hardcore poverty by the endNinth Malaysia Plan (9MP) with overall poverty halved from 23% in 2004 to 12% in 2010 and 8.1% in 2012.[276] Since its establishment in 2008, the state GDP increase to 10.7% which was higher than the national economic growth of 4.8% and the world economic growth of 2.7%. Following theworld financial crisis in 2009, Sabah GDP recorded 4.8% growth compared to −1.5% for national level and −0.4% for world level.[276]
From 2010 to 2011, the state experienced a slower growth due to weaker performance on the oil and gas sector. Based on 2014 survey, Sabah GDP recorded a 5.0% growth and remained as the largest contributor in agriculture sector with 18.1%, followed bySarawak, Johor,Pahang andPerak. ItsGDP per capita however are still lowest with RM19,672, the third lowest afterKelantan (RM11,815) andKedah (RM17,321) from all 13 states.[277] In the same year, the state export value stood at RM45.3 billion with an import value of RM36.5 billion. Machinery and transportation equipment accounted for most of the imported products followed by fuel, mineral lubricants and others. While Sabah mostly exports raw petroleum and palm oil.[278] The state currently has a total of eight ports with two inSepanggar while each one in Kota Kinabalu, Sandakan, Tawau, Kudat,Kunak and Lahad Datu that was operated and maintained by the Sabah Ports Authority owned by Suria Group.[279] As part of theEleventh Malaysia Plan (11MP), the federal government has approved an allocation of RM800 million to expand the cargo handling of Sapangar Bay Container Port from 500,000 to 1.25 millionTEUs per annum as well to accommodate larger ship likePanamax-size vessels.[280][281] An additional allocation of RM333.51 million was given in the same year, making it a total of RM1.13 billion with the project will start in 2017.[282][283] The fisheries industries remain the important part of Sabah primary sector economy with a contribution for about 200,000 metric tonnes of fish worth RM700 annually as well contributing 2.8% to the state annual GDP.[204] While theaquaculture and marine fish cage sector have produce 35,000 metric tons ofbrackish andfresh waters aquaculture and 360 metric ton ofgroupers,wrasses, snappers andlobsters worth around RM60 million and RM13 million respectively. Sabah is also one of the producer ofseaweed, with most of the farms are located in the seas aroundSemporna.[204] Although recently the seaweed industry was heavily affected by spate of kidnappings perpetrated by the southern-Philippine-basedAbu Sayyaf militant group.[284]
As of 2015, Sabah was producing 180,000barrel of oil equivalent per day[285] and currently receives 5% oil royalty (percentage of oil production paid by the mining company to the lease owner) from Petronas over oil explorations in Sabah territorial waters based on the 1974 Petroleum Development Act.[87][286] Majority of the oil and gas deposits are located on Sabah Trough basin in the west coast side.[287] Sabah was also given a 10% stake in Petronasliquefied natural gas (LNG) inBintulu, Sarawak.[288] Income inequality and the high cost living remain the major economic issues in Sabah.[289] The high cost living has been blamed on the Cabotage Policy, although the cause was due to the smaller trade volumes, cost of transport and efficiency of port to handle trade.[290] The government has set to review the Cabotage Policy even thought the cause was due to other reasons with the World Bank has stated that the result was due to weak distribution channels, high handling charges and inefficient inland transportation.[291] It was finally agreed to exempt the policy from 1 June 2017; with foreign ships will go directly to ports in the East without need to go to West Malaysia although Cabotage Policy on transshipment of goods within Sabah and Sarawak and the federal territory of Labuan remain.[292][293] Prime Minister Najib also promised to narrow development gap between Sabah and thePeninsular by improving and built more infrastructures in the state,[294] in which it was continued under thePakatan Harapan (PH) administration where the new federal government also said the state should develop in par with Peninsular with the federal government will be consistent in commitment to helping develop the state as stated by Deputy Prime MinisterWan Azizah Wan Ismail.[295][296] Based on a latest record, the total unemployment in the state have been reduced from 5.1% (2014) to 4.7% (2015), although the number of unemployment was still high.[297]Slum is almost non-existent in Malaysia but due to thehigh number of refugees arriving from thetroubling southern Philippines, Sabah has since seen a significant rise on its numbers. To eliminatewater pollution and improve a betterhygiene, the Sabah state government are working to relocate them into a better housing settlement.[298] As part of theBIMP-EAGA, Sabah also continued to position itself as a main gateway for regional investments. Foreign investment are mainly concentrated in the Kota Kinabalu Industrial Park (KKIP) areas.[286] Although country such as Japan have mainly focusing their various development and investment projects in the interior and islands since after the end of Second World War.[299] Following America's abandonment in theTrans-Pacific Partnership (TPPA) economic agreements in early 2017, Sabah began to turns its trade to China andIndia markets.[300] To further accelerate its economic growth, Sabah also targets several more countries as its main trade partners includingGermany, South Korea, Thailand and theUnited Arab Emirates as the destinations of exports forfood-based products, Brunei, Indonesia, Taiwan, the United States and New Zealand as the destinations for palm oil andlogistics sector,Russia as the destination for the oil and gas industry and Japan and Vietnam as the destinations for thewood-based furniture industry.[301]
Infrastructure
Sabah's public infrastructure are still lagged behind mostly due to its geographical challenges as the second largest state in Malaysia.[26][302] The Sabah Ministry of Infrastructure Development (formerly known as Ministry of Communication and Works) is responsible for all public infrastructure planning and development in the state.[303] To narrow the development gap, the federal government are working to build more infrastructures and improve the already available one.[294] In 2013, Sabah state government allocates RM1.583 billion for infrastructure and public facilities development,[304] of which the state were allocated another RM4.07 billion by the federal government in 2015 Malaysian Budget.[305] Since the Eight Malaysia Plan (8MP) until 2014, a total of RM11.115 billion has been allocated for various infrastructure projects in the state.[306] Under theTenth Malaysia Plan (10MP), infrastructure in the rural areas was given attention with the increase of rural water, electricity supply and road coverage.[307] Further large infrastructure allocation were delivered to both Sabah and Sarawak under the 2020 Malaysian Budget which include budget on improving connectivity and developing digital infrastructures for high speed internet in the rural areas.[308][309]
Electricity distribution in the state as well in theFederal Territory ofLabuan are operated and managed by theSabah ElectricitySdn. Bhd. (SESB). Sabah electrics are mostly generated fromdiesel power plant,hydropower andcombined cycle power plants. The only mainhydroelectric plant is theTenom Pangi Dam.[302] The combined cycle power plant called Kimanis Power Plant was completed in 2014, supplying 300 MW, with 285 MW nominal capacity.[310] The plant is a joint venture between Petronas and NRG Consortium that also includes facilities such asgas pipeline ofSabah–Sarawak Gas Pipeline and a terminal ofSabah Oil and Gas Terminal.[310] There is another two combined cycle power plants with a capacity of 380 MW operated byRanhill Holdings Berhad.[311] In 2009, the electricity coverage covers 67% of the state population and by 2011 increase to 80%.[302] The coverage reach 100% in 2012 after an allocation of RM962.5 million from the federal government were given to expand the coverage under the 2012National Budget.[312] Theelectrical grid is divided into two of West Coast and East Coast which has been integrated since 2007.[302] The West Coast Grid supplies electricity to Kota Kinabalu, Papar, Beaufort, Keningau, Kota Belud, Kota Marudu, Kudat and Labuan with a capacity of 488.4 MW and maximum demand of 396.5 MW.[302] While the East Coast Grid supplies electricity to the major towns of Sandakan, Kinabatangan, Lahad Datu, Kunak, Semporna and Tawau with a capacity of 333.02 MW and maximum demand of 203.3 MW.[302]
In 2018, the federal government has announced that Sabah electrical grid will be upgraded to reduce power interruption.[313] Neighbouring Sarawak has also previously announced intention to provide additional electricity power to Sabah with full export will be finalised in 2021.[314][315]Electricity interconnection between Sabah, the Indonesian province ofNorth Kalimantan and the Philippine province ofPalawan as well for the wholeMindanao islands are also in the process as part of theBIMP-EAGA and Borneo-Mindanao power interconnection under theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Power Grid;[316][317][318] with the interconnection with Palawan is expected to be commenced in the nearest future.[319][320][321] Since 2007, there is an attempt to establish acoal power plant in Lahad Datu which receiving opposition from local residents and non-governmental organisations for the pollution that would be caused by the plant.[322][323] Thus Sabah has start to exploring alternative ways to generate electricity with the usage ofrenewable energy such assolar,mini hydro,biomass,geothermal and micro-algae andtidal technologies.[324][325] TheJapanese government has extended aid totalling RM172,190.93 for the solar electrification project in the island ofLarapan in Sabah's east coast in 2010.[326] In 2016, a research by United States GeothermEx Inc. and Jacobs New Zealand indicated the existence of an active geothermal system centred around the flanks of Mount Maria on Apas Kiri where it is suitable for Malaysia's first geothermal plant.[327] The construction for the first geothermal plant that expected to be completed in 2017 however was abandoned by the previous government in the mid-2016 with no sign of further progress.[328] A South Korean companyGS Caltex also sets to build Malaysia's firstbio-butanol plant in the state.[329]
Babagon Dam, the biggest water catchment in the state
Pipedwater supply in the state is managed by the Sabah State Water Department, an agency under the control of Sabah Ministry of Infrastructure Development. Operating with 73 water treatments plants, an average of 1.19 billion litres of water are distributed daily to meet Sabahan residents demands.[330] The coverage of water supply in major towns has reach 100% while in rural areas, the coverage still around 75% with total public pipes length up to 15,031 kilometres.[330] Some communities usegravity water systems.[331] The only water supply dam in the state is the Babagon Dam which holds 21,000 million litres of water.[332] To meet the increase demands, another dam named as Kaiduan Dam was being proposed to be built although being met with protest from local villagers who living on the proposed site.[333] Sabah has a natural gas demand of 9.9 millioncubic metres (350 millioncubic feet) per day atstandard conditions in 2013, which increase to 14.8 million m3 (523 million cu ft) per day in 2015.[334] As Malaysia'sliquefied petroleum gas (LPG) are much cheaper through thesubsidy that was given by the federal government, it was found out in 2015 that around 20,000 LPG cylinders in Sabah east coast weresmuggled by immigrants from neighbouring Indonesia and the southern Philippines in a monthly basis to their countries that leading to many Sabahans hard to retrieve enough supplies of LPG.[335] As a counter-measure, theMalaysian Ministry of Domestic Trade, Co-operatives and Consumerism (MDTCAC) has temporarily cancelled all permits to sell gas cylinders into neighbouring countries with a new policy will be implemented to control such illegal activities.[336][337]
Telecommunication and broadcasting
Telecommunication towers atop Mount Silam facingDarvel Bay of Lahad Datu
Telecommunication in Sabah and Sarawak were originally administered by Posts and Telecommunication Department until 1967,[338] and maintained by the BritishCable & Wireless Communications before all telecommunications management in the state been takeover by Peninsular-based company.[339] The British telecommunication company have establish asubmarine cable that linking Kota Kinabalu with Singapore andHong Kong.[339] Following the expansion of the Peninsular-based company on 1 January 1968, Sabah Posts and Telecommunication Department was merged with the Peninsular telecommunication department to form Telecommunications Department Malaysia. All operations under Telecommunications Department Malaysia was then transferred to SyarikatTelekom Malaysia Berhad (STM) which become a public listed company in 1991 with the federal government retained a majority shareholding.[338] There are also other telecommunication companies operating in the state although only providing cellular phone facilities. In 2006, the state has the lowest Direct Exchange Line (DEL) penetration rate, with cellular and internet dial-up penetrations rate only 6.5 per 100 inhabitants.[302] Most residents from the low income groups would rather use mobile phones internet or use internet at their offices instead of setting up internet access at home due to the expensive cost and slow services.[302] Until the end of 2014, there were only 934 telecommunication hotspots in Sabah.[340] Due to this, the government are working to increase the penetration and capability of internet connection as well to bridge the gap between Sabah and the Peninsular.[341] From 2016,Unififibre optic coverage began to expand to other towns aside from the main city and major towns,[342] alongsideCelcom andMaxis by the following year with a speed up to 100 Mbit/s.[343][344] In 2019,Digi launches its home fibre broadband in Sabah with speed up to 1 Gbit/s.[345] The mobile telecommunications in Sabah are mostly use4G and3G and there is also a free ruralWi-Fi services provided by the federal government known as theKampung Tanpa Wayar1Malaysia (KTW) although Malaysia's government-provided public internet speeds are among the slower than many other countries.[346][347]
The advertisement of Peninsular-based radio stations:Era FM,My FM andHitz FM in a building, showing the radios had set up their offices in the capital city of Sabah
The previous state internet traffic are routed through a hub in Malaysia's capital of Kuala Lumpur, passing through a submarine cable connecting the Peninsular with Kota Kinabalu. The systems are considered as costly and inefficient especially due to the price of leasingbandwidth with the large distance.[26] In 2000, there is a plan to establish Sabah own internet hub but the plan was unreachable due to the high cost and low usage rates in the state. Other alternative plan including using the Brunei internetgateway in a short term before establishing Sabah own gateway.[26] By 2016, the federal government has start to establish the first internet gateway for East Malaysia with the laying of 60terabyte submarine cable which are developed by a private company named Xiddig Cellular Communications Sdn. Bhd. at a cost of about RM850 million through thePrivate Funding Initiative (PFI).[348] Under the 2015 Malaysian Budget project of 1Malaysia Cable System Project (SKR1M), a new submarine cable for high speed internet has been built from Kota Kinabalu toPahang in the Peninsular which completed in 2017.[349][350] The 1Malaysia submarine cable system linking the state capital withMiri,Bintulu andKuching in Sarawak together withMersing in Johor with an increase of bandwidth capacity up to 12terabyte per second.[351] Another submarine cable, the BIMP-EAGA Submarine and Terrestrial (BEST) Cable Project is currently being built from Kota Kinabalu to Tawau to connecting Sabah with Brunei, Kalimantan and Mindanao which will be completed in 2018.[352] In early 2016, aMemorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed between the state government and China's largest networking company,Huawei to set Sabah to becomeinformation and communications technology (ICT) hub by leveraging on Huawei's ICT expertise.[353] More free high speed Wi-Fi hotspots are being planned in Sabah, especially to the state capital.[354]
The building of Ministry of Communications and Multimedia Integrated Complex inDonggongon - the main office of Sabah RTM
Sabah launched its radio service on 9 November 1955, which became a part of Radio Malaysia when it joined Malaysia in 1963 and later part of the biggerRadio Televisyen Malaysia (RTM) in 1969, when the nation's radio and television operations merged.[355] On 28 December 1971, RTM launched a third TV station solely for Sabah, known asRangkaian Ketiga or Network Three. But following the construction of earth satellite station nearKuantan,Pahang andKinarut for communications and television broadcast via theIndian Ocean Intelsat III satellite and the introduction of TV1 on 30 August 1975 and TV2 on 31 August 1983 in the state, it ceased to air by mid-1985. RTM has four branches in the state - a main office in capital city Kota Kinabalu and three other offices in Keningau, Sandakan and Tawau. The main office produces news and shows for RTM's television channels and operates two state radio channels, namely Sabah FM and Sabah V FM, whereas three other offices operate district radio channels such as Keningau FM, Sandakan FM and Tawau FM.
Other radio channels in the state include KK FM which is operated byUniversiti Malaysia Sabah,[356] and Bayu FM which is only available throughAstro, the Malaysian main satellite television.[357] Several newly independent radio station have recently been launched in the state, namelyKupi-Kupi FM in 2016,[358]KK12FM andVOKFM in 2017.[359][360] Other Peninsular-based radio stations also had set up their offices in the state to tap the emerging market. Sabahan DJs are mostly hired and local state songs will be played to meet Sabahan listeners taste and slang. Television broadcasting in the state is divided intoterrestrial and satellite television. As Malaysia aims fordigital television transition, allanalogue signal will be shut down soon.[361] There are two types offree-to-air television provider such asMYTV Broadcasting (digital terrestrial) andAstro NJOI (satellite). On the other hand,IPTV is available via theUnifi TV through Unifi fibre optic internet subscription.[362] The state first established newspaper is the Sabah Times (rebranded as theNew Sabah Times), founded by Fuad Stephens, who became the first Chief Minister of Sabah.[363] Other main newspapers include the independentDaily Express,[364]Overseas Chinese Daily News,[365] the Sarawak-basedThe Borneo Post,[366] the Peninsular-basedSin Chew Daily[367] and the Brunei-basedBorneo Bulletin.[368]
Sabah has a total of 21,934 kilometres (13,629 mi) road network in 2016, of which 11,355 kilometres (7,056 mi) aresealed road.[369] Before the formation of Malaysia, the state together with Sarawak only has rudimentary road systems.[370] Mosttrunk roads was then constructed from the 1970s until the 1980s under theWorld Bank loans. In 2005, 61% of road coverage in the state were stillgravel and unpaved, comprising 1,428 kilometres (887 mi)federal roads and 14,249 kilometres (8,854 mi)state roads, of which 6,094 kilometres (3,787 mi) are sealed while the remaining 9,583 kilometres (5,955 mi) were gravel and unpaved roads.[302] This led to great disparity between roads in the state with those in the Peninsular, with only 38.9% are sealed while 89.4% have been sealed in the Peninsular. Due to this, SDC was implemented to expand the road coverage in Sabah along with the construction ofPan-Borneo Highway. Since the 9MP, various road projects has been undertaken under the SDC and around RM50 million has been spent to repairs Sabah main roads since the 8MP.[302] The high cost to repair roads frequently has led the Sabah state government to find other alternative ways to connecting every major districts by tunnelling roads through highlands which will also saving time and fuel as the distance being shortened as well to bypass landslides.[371][372] In early 2016, the expansion project of Pan-Borneo Highway has been launched to expand the road size fromsingle carriageway to four-lane road, while city highway been expand from four-lane to eight-lane as well with the construction of new routes which will connect the state with Sarawak, Brunei and theTrans Kalimantan Highway in Indonesia.[373][374] The project is divided into two packages: the first package covering the West Coast area will complete in 2021, while the second covering the East Coast area will finish in 2022.[375][376][377] All state roads are maintained under the state's Public Works Department,[378] while federal roads maintained by the nationalPublic Works Department.[379]
Sabah uses adual carriageway with theleft-hand traffic rule.[377][380] All major towns in Sabah provide public transportation services such as buses, taxis and vans along withGrab services. TheKK Sentral operating expressbus services from the city toBeaufort,Sipitang,Menumbok,Lawas andBrunei.[381][382] TheBRT Kota Kinabalu is currently under construction to providebus rapid transit (BRT) system in Sabah's capital.[383][384] A rail transport through theWestern Line operated by theSabah State Railway provides daily services for commuters, travellers, as well as for cargo transportation. A separate company owned by Sutera Harbour known as the North Borneo Railway operates leisure tour for tourists.[385] The train station and terminal is located inTanjung Aru, not far from the city airport.[386] Other main stations including inPapar,Beaufort andTenom. The currentAeropod projects on the main station in Tanjung Aru will modernise the station and provide a provision for futurelight rail transit (LRT).[387] In early 2016, the state government has purchased a newdiesel multiple unit (DMU) for about RM8 million to replace the old train used between Beaufort and Tenom while the rail line from Halogilat and Tenom will be upgrading by the federal government at the cost of RM99.5 million along with the arrival of another three DMUs that will be received in early 2018.[388]Kota Kinabalu International Airport is the main gateway to Sabah.[389] In 2005, the Malaysian federal government approved major renovation and refurbishment works to the main terminal (Terminal 1) as well as a runway expansion with construction began in 2006.[390] As a result of the expansion, the airport is able to accommodate large passenger aircraft such as theBoeing 747.[389] It has also become the second busiest airport inMalaysia, afterKuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) in West Malaysia.[389] In 2018, theMalaysia Airlines conducts test flight for its new long-range capability passenger aircraft ofAirbus A350 to the airport from Kuala Lumpur as a replacement to the largest aircraft ofAirbus A380 since it is too large for Malaysian aviation markets.[391] Other smaller airports in Sabah includingKudat Airport,Lahad Datu Airport,Sandakan Airport andTawau Airport.Layang-Layang Airport inSwallow Reef served as a military and civilian airport.[392][393] Three airlines fly from Peninsular Malaysia to Sabah: Malaysia Airlines,AirAsia, andMalindo Air.[394]Sabah Air is a helicopterchartered flight company owned by the Sabah state government, serving flights for aerial sightseeing to interested customers as well for the transportation of state government servants.[395]
Sabah has a total of eight ports operating in Sepanggar, Kota Kinabalu, Sandakan, Tawau, Kudat, Kunak and Lahad Datu.[279] The Sapangar Bay Container Port is the maintransshipment hub for the BIMP-EAGA region. Another port, the Sapangar Bay Oil Terminal is the main terminal for refined petroleum products and liquid chemical in the West Coast. Kota Kinabalu Port remain as a general cargo port. While all ports in the northern and eastern Sabah served to handle palm oil related products such as fertiliser,palm kernel as well for general cargo.[279] Ferry service in the West Coast side provide trips to Labuan from the Jesselton Point Waterfront andMenumbok Ferry Terminal inKuala Penyu.[396][397] In the East Coast, the service are provided from the Tawau Ferry Terminal to Nunukan andTarakan in Kalimantan, Indonesia.[398] There is also ferry services from Sandakan toZamboanga City and a new one that was planned from Kudat to Buliluyan,Bataraza ofPalawan in the Philippines, but both services were terminated at the moment due to lack of security enforcement from the Philippine side prior to the persistent attack by pirates and kidnapping by militant groups based in the Sulu Archipelago of the southern Philippines.[399][400] The planned ferry service from Kudat to Palawan was restored on 1 February 2017 after the increasing of security enforcement from the Philippines side,[197] but were postponed again until present mainly due to both ferry operators from Malaysia and the Philippines facing difficulties in complying with the necessary requirements and permits imposed by both national and state authorities.[401]
Sabah has four major government hospitals:Queen Elizabeth Hospital,Queen Elizabeth Hospital II,Duchess of Kent Hospital and Tawau Hospital followed by 13 other government districts hospitals,[note 2] women and children hospital, mental hospital, public health clinics,1Malaysia clinics and rural clinics. Besides government-owned hospitals and clinics, there are also a number of private hospitals such as: Gleneagles Kota Kinabalu,KPJ Specialist Hospital, Damai Specialist Centre (DSC), Rafflesia Specialist Centre (RSC) and Jesselton Medical Centre (JMC).[402] There is also an addiction treatment facility known asSolace Sabah in the state capital to treat problems related to alcoholism anddrug addiction.
In 2011, the state's doctor-patient ratio was 1:2,480 – lower than theWorld Health Organization (WHO) recommendation of 1 doctor to 600 patients.[403] Because of the heavy workload and lack of interest from younger graduates, Sabah is facing the shortage of doctors.[404] Many doctors who once served under the government hospitals have decided to move to private hospitals instead because of the heavy workload with low salaries in government hospitals although private hospitals won't easily recruiting them with some applications have been turned down.[402] Thus to prevent the continuous shortage of doctors, the federal government has initiated various measure to produce more physicians with massive funds has been allocated to healthcare sector in every year country budget.[405]
All primary and secondary schools are under the jurisdiction and observation of the Sabah State Education Department, under the guidance of the nationalMinistry of Education.[406] The oldest schools in Sabah are:St. Michael's School Sandakan (1886),St. Michael's School Penampang (1888), All Saints' School, Likas (1903) and St. Patrick's School Tawau (1917).[407] Based on 2013 statistics, Sabah has a total of 207 government secondary schools,[408] fiveinternational schools (comprising Charis International School,[409] Kinabalu International School,[410] Sayfol International School,[411] as well the Indonesian School of Kota Kinabalu[412] and Japanese School of Kota Kinabalu).[413] and nineChinese independent schools. Sabah has a considerable number of indigenous students enrolled in Chinese schools.[414]
Sabah state government also emphasises pre-school education in the state. This was followed with the aid fromSabah Foundation (Yayasan Sabah) andNestlé who helped to establish pre-schools in the state.[415][416] Sabah has two public universities:Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS) andUniversiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM).Universiti Tun Abdul Razak (UNIRAZAK) has set up their regional centre in Kota Kinabalu.[417] As of 2016, there is around 15 private colleges, two private university colleges together with other newly established colleges.[418] In 1960, the overall literacy rate in North Borneo was only 24%.[419] The recent findings in 2011 found the literacy rate have increase to 79%.[420] Most of secondary schools leavers also did not continue their studies after completing theirSijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) mainly due to financial burdens as well as a lack of interest and confidence to continue their studies in local higher learning institutes. A 2015 survey found that only 16,000 out of more than 20,000 secondary schools leavers continued their studies.[421]
In early 2016, Sabah had a total number of 42,047 teachers teaching in various pre-schools, primary and secondary schools.[422] Following the decentralisation of power from the federal government to state government as well to improve the education in the state, there has been a target to recruit 90% of teachers from Sabah itself.[423] TheSabah State Library is the main public library in the state.[424] There are 11 Indonesian schools (beside the main Indonesian school in the state capital) spreading across Sabah mainly for Indonesian migrants children residing in the state.[425] Since 2014, Filipino migrants children also have been enrolled in Alternative Learning Centres (ALC) that were set-up byFilipino volunteers in Sabah in collaboration with various local non-governmental organisations (NGO).[426]
According to the 2020 Malaysian census, the population of Sabah stands at 3,418,785, making Sabah the third most populous state in Malaysia with the highest non-citizen population at 810,443.[427] However, as Malaysia is one of theleast densely populated countries in Asia, Sabah is particularly sparsely populated with most of the population concentrated in the coastal areas since towns and urban centres have massively expanded. People from Sabah are generally called Sabahans and identify themselves as such.[428] There are an estimated 42 ethnic groups with over 200sub-ethnic groups with separate own languages, cultures and belief systems.[429] The three largest indigenous groups in Sabah are theKadazan-Dusun,Bajau and theMurut. There are largeRungus People,Orang Sungai,Bruneian Malays,Lundayeh,Suluk and otherBumiputera ethnic minorities,[430] while theChinese makes up the main non-indigenous population.[2] High migration to the state was noticeable in the 1970s, when hundreds of thousands ofFilipino refugees, mostly theMoros, began arriving due to theMoro conflict in the county. There are alsoIndonesian labourers from Kalimantan,Sulawesi andLesser Sunda Islands.[431][432] The arrival of uncontrollable illegal immigration have cause major impact on political, economic and socio-cultural problem particularly on local indigenous peoples. The arrival of these illegal immigrants and the slow economic growth have forced Sabahans to immigrate to Peninsular Malaysia or overseas to find better paying jobs and income opportunities.[277][433][434]
Islam is the predominant religion in Sabah, although its society remainedsecular.[436][437] In the 2020 census, the percentage of Muslims was around 69.6%, while that ofChristians was 24.7% and that ofBuddhism 5.1%.[435] In 1960, the population percentage of Muslims was only 37.9%, while the percentage of Christians was 16.6% and almost half of the population professed other religions, that is at 45.5%.[438][439][440] The increase was mainly contributed through the uncontrolled high immigration rate and controversial mass conversions in recent decades.[441][442]
TheColony of North Borneo Annual Report, 1960, notes that major indigenous groups maintained pagan beliefs, while coastal areas were majority Muslim. Other religions mentioned were traditional Chinese beliefs and various Christian denominations.[443] Many indigenous groups saw conversions to Christianity,[444] in part due to cultural compatibility such as having no ban on pork.[445]
Malay is the main language spoken in the state, although with a differentcreole fromSarawak Malay and Peninsular Malay.[447] The state has its own slang for Malay which originated either from indigenous words,Brunei Malay,Bajau,Suluk andDusun languages.[448] The indigenous languages of Sabah can be divided into four language families ofDusunic,Murutic,Paitanic andSama–Bajau.[449] The indigenous languages however facing extinction due to widespread use of Malay language particularly in home as parents often see the indigenous language as inconvenient especially in job related. However, as awareness for the indigenous language becoming more obvious, more modern parents insist on passing down their mother tongue language.[450][451][452] As theHakka forms the majority of Chinese in Sabah, theHakka dialect is the most commonly spokenChinese dialect in the state apart fromCantonese andHokkien dialects.[453]Semporna is home to the onlyChavacano-speaking community in Malaysia. Semporna's Chavacano speakers are refugees (or descendants of refugees) who fled theMoro conflict of thePhilippines. A large number of these refugees live in Malaysia illegally. Chavacano is a co-official language there.[454]
Following the change of the government after the 2018 general election, the new Sabah government has stated that there is no restriction on the usage ofEnglish in the state, adding that even if the Education Ministry stated that it is unlawful for English be used in Sabah, the restrictions will not be allowed to be imposed in the state, and that the state government will undo the previous improper law since the restrictions will only cause more damage to their younger generations especially when they need to work in private firms or organisations that require English proficiency. The new state government also stated that they will look into the matters if there is a need for a change in the state law.[455]
Sabah culture is diverse due to a wide range of different ethnicity.[430] In the coastal areas, Sabahan culture has been influenced by the Bruneian Malays and West Coast Bajaus on the west coast side while in the east coast it is influenced by either East Coast Bajau, Bugis, and Suluk cultures with Islam being the important part of their lives.[456][457] Christianity plays an important part to the indigenous cultures in the interior side in the daily lives of the Kadazan-Dusun, Lundayeh, Murut and Rungus beside their old practice of the traditional Animism and Paganism.[456] The indigenous culture however are in danger and facing extinction due to widespread cultural assimilation from Peninsular to the state. ControversialMalayisation take place in the state since Malaya-based political parties took over the Sabah Government.[458][459]
Handicraft andsouvenir productions are part of the tourism products in Sabah. In addition, the Sabah Crafts Exotica programme has been held annually since 2011 in different small local museums.[469][470] Following the various initiatives by state government to encourage local entrepreneurs for state handicrafts, there were a total of 526 entrepreneurs in 2012 which increased to 1,483 in 2013 and 1,702 in 2014 with total sales value up from RM31 million to RM56 million.[471]
Theroundabout in Tambunan with the sculpture ofSompoton, the main musical instrument of Sabah
Every ethnic groups in Sabah are known for their traditional music instruments,[472] the coastal people of Bajau, Brunei Malays, Bugis, Illanun, Kedayan and Suluks known for theirgendang,kompang andkulintangan;[473] while the interior people such as the Dusun known with theirbungkau,sompoton and turali, the Lun Bawang/Lun Dayeh with their bass, the Kadazan with their tongkungon, the Murut with their tagunggak, the Rungus with their sundatang, tontog and turuding;[474][475]suling is mostly played by all the interior ethnic groups of Kadazan-Dusun, Murut, Rungus and Lun Bawang/Lun Dayeh in the state.[476] Every ethnic groups also known for their traditional dances; both Kadazan-Dusun were known for theirSumazau dance, the Murut with theirMagunatip,[477] the Rungus with theirMongigol Sumundai,[475] The Lun Bawang/Lun Dayeh with theirAlai Busak Baku, the Brunei Malays with theirAdai-Adai,[478] the West Coast Bajau with theirLimbai andKuda Pasu, the East Coast Bajau and Suluk with theirPangalay (also known asDaling-Daling orMengalai), Bisaya with theirLiliput and the Cocos Malays with theirDansa andNona Mansaya along with many other dances from other sub-ethnic groups.[479][480] Beside that, the state of Sabah is also known forbatik production though the industry are still small than the major batik producer states in the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia.[481] The state batik has since been commercialised to enter the international market.[482]
Notable dishes in Sabah include the Beaufort mee,[483][484] bosou,[485]hinava,[486] ngiu chap, pinasakan,[487] Sipitangsatay,[488][489] Tuaran mee,[484][490] tuhau,[491] the bambangan fruit (mangifera pajang) along with many others.[492] Apart from these, Sabah also features a number of snacks likeamplang,cincin,lidah, roti kahwin,UFOspinjaram and Sandakantart[493] and dessert likelamban, nuba tingaa,punjung, sinamu and Tuaran coconut pudding.[494] Every ethnic group has its own cuisine with different styles of preparing, cooking, serving and eating the food. Examples of Sabah-based companies promotingdairy product and state drinks are like theDesa Cattle,Tenom coffee andSabah Tea.[495] The indigenous people features a number ofalcoholic drinks such as bahar, kinomol,lihing, montoku, sagantang, sikat and tuak;[496] with the state itself becoming the third-highest in alcohol consumption in the country after Kuala Lumpur and Sarawak.[497] TheEnglish Tea House and Restaurant in Sandakan is another attraction promoting theBritish tea culture. Other international shops and restaurants such as for Western food, Middle Eastern food, Bruneian food, Indonesian food, Filipino food, Japanese food, Korean food, Russian food, Taiwanese food, Thai food and Vietnamese food have their presence there. The increasing number of tourists on the purpose ofculinary tourism has since raised the local awareness on the importance of local food to state tourism.[498]
Portrayal in media
Extract from the title page of the British North Borneo Official Gazette (theBritish North Borneo Herald) of 16 April 1902
Much of the information of the territory was kept in the records ofJournal of the Royal Asiatic Society (since 1820) andBritish North Borneo Herald (since 1883).Joseph Hatton published one of the earliest book titledNorth Borneo – Explorations and Adventures in the Equator (1886) based on the exploration notes leave by his son Frank Hatton, who served under theNorth Borneo Chartered Company; his son was accidentally killed during his journey in Segama River on North Borneo.[499] Ada Pryer wrote a book about her life in North Borneo titledA Decade in Borneo (1894, re-issued 2001) as her husband,William Pryer, also served for the North Borneo Chartered Company.[500] The earliest known footage of North Borneo is from three American movies byMartin and Osa Johnson titledJungle Adventures (1921),Jungle Depths of Borneo (1937) andBorneo (1937).[501] Australian authorWendy Law Suart lived in North Borneo capital between 1949 and 1953 and wrote a book titledThe Lingering Eye – Recollections of North Borneo based on her experiences there.[502]
Three Came Home, a 1950 Hollywood film based on the memoir ofAgnes Newton Keith life in Sandakan, North Borneo (present-day Sabah) during World War II[86]
English author K.G. Tregonning wrote a book about his travel to Jesselton from Singapore in a book titledNorth Borneo (1960).[503] Various other American films have been taken in the state, such as theThree Came Home (1950), aHollywood film based on the memoir ofAgnes Newton Keith in her book depicting the situation of World War II in Sandakan.[86] Keith also wrote three other books about the state:Land Below the Wind,White Man Returns andBeloved Exiles. A Japanese film calledSandakan No. 8 (1974) directed byKei Kumai tells the story of prostitution byKarayuki-san in Sandakan Japanese brothel based on the 1972 bookSandakan Brothel No. 8: An Episode in the History of Lower-Class by Yamazaki Tomoko.[504] In theEarl Mac Rauch novelisation of the AmericanBuckaroo Banzai novel (Pocket Books, 1984; repr. 2001), as well in the DVD film,Buckaroo's archenemy Hanoi Xan is said to have his secret base in Sabah, in a "relic city of caves".[505]Bat*21 (1988), another American film depicting theVietnam War, was shot at various locations in the suburbs north of Kota Kinabalu, includingMenggatal,Telipok, Kayu Madang and Lapasan.[506] Another English author,Redmond O'Hanlon, also wrote a book titledInto the Heart of Borneo (1984) about Borneo island.[507] While Sydney-based Australian author Lynette Ramsay Silver wrote two books about the history of Sabah:Sandakan – A Conspiracy of Silence (1998) andBlood Brothers – Sabah and Australia 1942–1945 (2010). In early 2016, a "Roll of Honour" immortalising 2,479 British and Australian soldiers who died in Sabah during the World War II was presented by a BritishRoyal Artillery veteran to Sabah State Tourism, Culture and Environment Department; the roll lists a record of the identity of everyprisoner of war (POW) during theSandakan Death March.[508] In 2017, an English woman named Mary Christina Lewin (Tina Rimmer), who had lived in North Borneo since 1949,[509] was given the 'Sabah Cultural Icon' as the first person to receive the award for her lifelong contribution to the people in the territory and her biggest role as educationist and artist who portrayed the life scene of North Borneo through her artworks.[510]
Following the beginning of Malaysian films in 1970s along with the foundation of Sabah Film Production, several local films have been produced and filmed in the state by the state production, includingKeluarga Si Comat (1975) andHapuslah Air Matamu (1976) (produced with a collaboration with Indonesian Film Production).[511] Abu Bakar Ellah (popularly known as Ampal) then became the leading artist of Sabah comedy film with his filmOrang Kita.[512] In the present day, state-produced dramas and documentaries are usually aired either onTVi,TV1 orTV2 while state musics aired on radios through Bayu FM,Kupi-Kupi FM, Sabah FM and Sabah vFM. Sabah was featured in the British popular reality showSurvivor: Borneo and the American showEco-Challenge Borneo in 2000.[513][514] In 2001, the state was featured in a 2001 Filipino documentary titledSabah: Ang Bagong Amerika? byVicky Morales on the story of Filipino immigrants from the Sulu Archipelago escapingpoverty and starvation in the Philippines by entering Sabah illegally to earn livehood but facing risk being caught, tortured and deported as Malaysian laws are getting strict on illegal migration.[515] In 2003, the state was featured onThe Amazing Race for the first time as well on a 2009 Hong Kong drama ofBorn Rich.[516] The state was also featured in a 2014 American documentarySacred Planet and featured again in a new edition ofThe Amazing Race as well on a Korean reality show programme titled theLaw of the Jungle, both in 2014.[517] In early 2017,Hong Kong film industry once again choose Sabah as one of the location for a new romance film titledShe Will Be Loved.[518]
During the harvest festival ofKaamatan, there is heritage beauty pageant ofUnduk Ngadau as well as theMr. Kaamatan being held annually at theKDCA Compound in Sabah to honour of the legendaryHuminodun, a maiden who sacrificed herself to save her people.[519][520]The Borneo Bug Fest in 2016, featuringVolkswagen Beetle
Sabahans observe a number of holidays and festivals throughout the year.[521] Apart from the nationalIndependence Day,Malaysia Day celebrations and the State Governor's birthday, Sabah celebratesSabah Day annually on 31 August.[522][523] Every ethnic groups celebrate their own festivals and the culture of open house (rumah terbuka) with the visits of families and friends from other races and religion are a norm especially with the interracial marriage between different ethnic groups of different background.[524] Sabah are the only state in Malaysia to declare theKaamatan celebration a public holiday.[525] Both Sabah and Sarawak are also the only two states in Malaysia that declareGood Friday a public holiday.[524][526] Many festivals are being held annually in Sabah such as theBon Odori Festival,[527] Sabah Jazz,[528] Borneo Bird Festival,[529] Borneo Bug Fest, Borneo Eco Film Festival,[530] Kota Kinabalu Food Fest,[531] Kota Kinabalu Jazz Festival,[532] Sabah Dragon Boat Festival, Sabah Fest,[533] Sabah International Folklore Festival and Sabah Sunset Music Festival.[534]
North Borneo sent its own teams to participate in the1956Summer Olympic Games,[535]1958 and1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games,[536] as well on the1962 Asian Games before its athletes started representing Malaysia after 1963.[537][538] To produce more athletes and to improve and raise the standard of sports in the state after Sabah became part of Malaysia, the Sabah State Sports Council was established in 1972.[539] In addition, the Sabah Sports and Cultural Board Sports was created on 1 September 1976 before being frozen in December 1978 for more than two years until 1 January 1981 due to specific reasons.[540] On 31 December 1996, the board been split into Sport Authority of Sabah and Sabah Cultural Board with a new board been established as the Sabah Sports Board that was maintained until present.[540] Sabah became the host ofSUKMA Games in2002 and was crowned overall champions of the 2022 Para SUKMA Games.[541] The state also sends athletes to participate in the Borneo Games,[542] with some of them representing Malaysia at several international sporting events such as theSEA Games,Asian Games,Commonwealth Games and theOlympic Games. Since 2003, the State Sports Council organises the Sabah Games (SAGA), a biennial state-level multi-sport event aimed at scouting young sports talent to represent the State at national sporting events. From an inter-zone event, the Games evolved into an inter-district event in 2009, with each of Sabah's districts rotate among themselves as host.[543] Besides focusing on main sports, Sabah also features 11 traditional sports.[544]
There are 12 sports complex within the state together with three main stadiums.[545]Likas Stadium is the main stadium for the state football association ofSabah F.C., followed by Penampang Stadium and Tawau Stadium. Sabah F.C. (formerly Sabah FA) was founded in 1963 with the association have won one title each on theMalaysia FA Cup in 1995,Malaysia Premier League in1996 and2019,President Cup Malaysia in 1999, 13 titles in the pastBorneo Cup and 11 titles in the women's footballTun Sharifah Rodziah Cup.[546][547] The association was returned to private sector in early 1996, which had long under the purview of the state government.[548] But following the argument between the association and Sabah Sports Board, Sabah FA was suspended by the state sports council on 15 January 1998 and the management was put under thenational sport ministry.[549] The move was seen as breachingFIFA rules that stated there should be no government interference on football organisations.[549] The persistent problems plaguing the Sabah FA since 1980s have significantly deteriorating the team performances and demoralising players in addition to the scandals that have embroiling the Malaysian football in 1994.[550] In 2019, both Sabah and Sarawak Sports Ministries work together to establish the East Malaysia Sports Commission to facilitate the organisation of more sports programmes in the two territories including other places in the Borneo islands.[551] With the increase of youth interests one-sports, Sabah government also targeting to develop the sports as part of the tourism development in the state.[552][553][554][555]
^Heath presumably means thecommunist insurgency along the border of Malaysia–Thailand, further Indonesia infiltration and the Philippines who had not dropped their claim to Sabah until this day. As well with theVietnam War that was raging at the time, raising fears ofSouth-East Asian dominoes toppling toSoviet-alignedcommunism.[162]
^Kathy MacKinnon (1996).The Ecology of Kalimantan. Periplus Editions. pp. 55–57.ISBN978-0-945971-73-3.Since 1980, the Sabah Museum staff have carried out excavations in the Madai and Baturong limestone massifs, at caves and open sites dated back 30,000 years. Baturong is surrounded by large area of alluvial deposits, formed by the damming of the Tingkayu River by a lava flow. The Tingkayu stone industry shows a unique level of skills for its period. The remains of many mammals, snakes, and tortoises were found, all food items collected by early occupants of the rock shelters.
^ab"About Sabah".Sabah Tourism Promotion Corporation and Sabah State Museum. Sabah Education Department. Archived fromthe original on 15 May 2016. Retrieved15 May 2016.
^Edward Gibbon (1788)."Fall In The East — The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire [Chapter 64]".Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved18 October 2017.Hundred thousand Chinese imitated his example; and the whole empire, fromTonkin to thegreat wall, submitted to the dominion ofCublai. His boundless ambition aspired to the conquest ofJapan: his fleet was twice shipwrecked; and the lives of a hundred thousand Mongols and Chinese were sacrificed in the fruitless expedition. But the neighbouring kingdoms, Corea,Tonkin,Cochinchina,Pegu,Bengal, andTibet, were reduced in different degrees of tribute and obedience by the effort or terror of his arms. He explored the Indian Ocean with a fleet of a thousand ships: they sailed in sixty-eight days, most probably to Borneo, under the equinoctial line; and though they returned not without spoil or glory, the emperor was dissatisfied that the savage king had escaped from their hands.
^Keat Gin Ooi (2006). "The 'Slapping Monster' and Other Stories: Recollections of the Japanese Occupation (1941–1945) of Borneo through Autobiographies, Biographies, Memoirs, and Other Ego-documents".Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History.7 (3).doi:10.1353/cch.2007.0009.S2CID162251646.
^R. S. Milne; K. J. Ratnam (May 1969). "Patterns and Peculiarities of Voting in Sabah, 1967".Asian Survey.9 (5):373–381.doi:10.2307/2642463.JSTOR2642463.
^abBunyan, John (25 February 2019)."After six years, police commandos shed light on Lahad Datu incursion".Malay Mail. Retrieved24 January 2025.The Lahad Datu standoff reportedly saw a total of 68 deaths, including 56 from the Sulu sultanate, nine from the Malaysian authorities and six civilians.
^Francis Loh Kok-Wah (March 1996). "A 'New Sabah' and the spell of development: resolving federal-state relations in Malaysia".South East Asia Research.4 (1):63–83.doi:10.1177/0967828X9600400105.JSTOR23746929.
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^"Philippines rebel leader arrested".BBC News. 25 November 2001.Archived from the original on 26 September 2015. Retrieved26 September 2015.Malaysia's Inspector-General of Police Norian Mai said Mr Misuari and six of his followers were arrested at 3.30 am on Saturday (1930 GMT Friday) on Jampiras island off Sabah state. Manila had ordered his arrest on charges of instigating a rebellion after the government suspended his governorship of an autonomous Muslim region in Mindanao, the ARMM. Although the Philippines has no extradition treaty with Malaysia, the authorities have already made clear that they intend to hand Mr Misuari over to the authorities in Manila as soon as possible. Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad had said before the arrest that, although his country had provided support to the rebel group in the past in its bid for autonomy, Mr Misuari had not used his powers correctly. "Therefore, we no longer feel responsible to provide him with any assistance," he said.
^Thor-Seng Liew; Menno Schilthuizen; Maklarin Lakim (3 December 2009). "The determinants of land snail diversity along a tropical elevational gradient: insularity, geometry and niches".Institute for Tropical Biology and Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sabah.37 (6):1071–1078.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02243.x.S2CID83558264.
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^"Forest Enactment"(PDF). Sabah State Government (State Attorney-General's Chambers). 1968. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 24 May 2016. Retrieved24 May 2016.
^abSu Mei Toh; Kevin T. Grace."Case study: Sabah forest ownership"(PDF).Global Forestry Services Inc. FTP. p. 2/27 (254) and 26/27 (278). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 28 October 2022. Retrieved24 May 2018.
^"Socio-Economic Context".Bornean Biodiversity and Ecosystem Conservation. Sabah State Government. Archived fromthe original on 29 May 2016. Retrieved29 May 2016.
^Sorkhabi Rasoul (2012)."Borneo's Petroleum Plays".GEO ExPro. Vol. 9, no. 4. Archived fromthe original on 21 November 2015. Retrieved20 November 2015.A simplified map showing the distribution of major sedimentary basins onshore and offshore Borneo.
^Mohd Adam Arinin (22 July 2019)."KK Sentral kini mula beroperasi" [KK Sentral is now operational] (in Malay). Sabah News Today. Archived fromthe original on 29 July 2019. Retrieved29 July 2019.
^"Home Page". Sabah State Library. Archived fromthe original on 9 December 2016. Retrieved22 August 2016.
^"Daftar Sekolah Indonesia di Sabah" [List of Indonesian Schools in Sabah] (in Indonesian). Konsulat Jenderal Republik Indonesia di Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. 27 April 2010. Archived fromthe original on 23 October 2017. Retrieved17 August 2016.
^abPatricia Regis; Anne Lasimbang; Rita Lasimbang; J. W. King."Introduction to Integration of Indigenous Culture into Non-Formal Education Programmes in Sabah"(PDF).Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Development, Partners of Community Organisations (PACOS), Kadazandusun Language Foundation and Summer Institute of Linguistics, Malaysia Branch, Sabah. Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (Japan). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 28 August 2016. Retrieved28 August 2016.
^abDg Kamisah Ag Budin; Syed Azizi Wafa (2015). "The relationship between culture and leadership style preference among Malay-Brunei, Bajau and Kadazan-Dusun community in Sabah, Malaysia".Universiti Teknologi MARA, Universiti Malaysia Sabah.34 (10):1202–1210.doi:10.1108/JMD-02-2015-0019.ISSN0262-1711.
^"Kebudaan Papar (Brunei)" [Papar Culture (Brunei)] (in Malay). Papar District Office. Archived fromthe original on 29 October 2014. Retrieved10 September 2016.
^"Dances of Sabah". Sabah Education Department. Archived fromthe original on 10 September 2016. Retrieved10 September 2016.
^Hisyamuddin Ayub (2 March 2014)."Nilai tinggi batik Sabah" [High value Sabah batik].Utusan Malaysia (in Malay). Archived fromthe original on 10 September 2016. Retrieved10 September 2016.
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^Ruben Sario (23 May 2016)."Sipitang's road to industrial success".The Star. Retrieved5 September 2016.Sipitang is also widely known as having among the best satay in the state and many drive to the town just to taste the speciality.
^"School allocations to be trimmed by 20 pct".The Borneo Post. 1 July 2016. Archived fromthe original on 5 September 2016. Retrieved5 September 2016.We were also told that Sipitang is also widely known as having the best satay in Sabah and many come to the town to taste the specialty.
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^"Johnson Family Reunion". The Martin and Osa Johnson Safari Museum. September 2004. Archived fromthe original on 18 December 2005. Retrieved30 August 2016.
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^Frank Rankmore; Neil Morrison (31 March 2011)."Borneo Cup".The Straits Times, New Straits Times and Borneo Bulletin. RSSSF.Archived from the original on 2 September 2016. Retrieved2 September 2016.
^Rodelio Junjun Taucan (21 April 2019)."Shafie Meterai Mou Wujud Wilayah Kembar Dengan Jiangxi, China" [Shafie Seals MoU Forming Sister Territory With Jiangxi, China] (in Malay). Borneo Today. Archived from the original on 27 September 2019. Retrieved27 September 2019.
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