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Ruy Lopez

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Chess opening
For other uses, seeRuy Lopez (disambiguation).

Chess opening
Ruy Lopez
abcdefgh
8
a8 black rook
c8 black bishop
d8 black queen
e8 black king
f8 black bishop
g8 black knight
h8 black rook
a7 black pawn
b7 black pawn
c7 black pawn
d7 black pawn
f7 black pawn
g7 black pawn
h7 black pawn
c6 black knight
b5 white bishop
e5 black pawn
e4 white pawn
f3 white knight
a2 white pawn
b2 white pawn
c2 white pawn
d2 white pawn
f2 white pawn
g2 white pawn
h2 white pawn
a1 white rook
b1 white knight
c1 white bishop
d1 white queen
e1 white king
h1 white rook
8
77
66
55
44
33
22
11
abcdefgh
Moves1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5
ECOC60–C99
OriginGöttingen manuscript,c. 1490
Named afterRuy López de Segura,Libro del Axedrez,[1] 1561
ParentKing's Knight Opening
Synonyms

TheRuy Lopez (/rɔɪ,ˈruːi/;Spanish:[ˈrujˈlopeθ]),[a] also called theSpanish Opening orSpanish Game, is achess opening beginning with the moves:

1.e4e5
2.Nf3Nc6
3.Bb5

Known from the earliest written theory of modern chess in the late 15th century, the Ruy Lopez has remained one of the most popular chess openings to this day. White develops the bishop to an active square, attacking the knight that defends the e5-pawn. Thetheory of the Ruy Lopez is the most extensively developed of allOpen Games, with some lines having been analysed well beyond move thirty. At nearly every move there are many reasonable alternatives, and most have been deeply explored.[3]

Black's main replies are 3...a6, theMorphy Defence, and 3...Nf6, theBerlin Defence. After 3...a6, 4.Bxc6 is theExchange Variation. More commonly, however, White retreats the bishop with 4.Ba4. After 4...Nf6 White may disregard the attack on the e-pawn with 5.0-0, since the pawn can be regained. The most common move is then 5...Be7, theClosed Defence, leading to themain line as well as theMarshall Attack and other lines. The main alternatives are 5...Nxe4, theOpen Defence, and 5...b5, theArkhangelsk Defence.

In theEncyclopaedia of Chess Openings (ECO), the opening is classified under codes C60 to C99.

This article usesalgebraic notation to describe chess moves.

History

[edit]

The Ruy Lopez is named afterRuy López de Segura, a 16th-century Spanish priest who systematically studied this and other openings in his 150-page chess book,Libro del Axedrez, written in 1561.[1][4] Lopez advocated 3.Bb5 as superior to 3.Bc4, and was of the opinion that Black should play 2...d6 (thePhilidor Defence) to avoid it. Although it bears his name, this particular opening was included in theGöttingen manuscript, which dates fromc. 1490.[5][6] The Ruy Lopez did not gain widespread popularity until the mid-19th century, when Finnish-Russian[7][further explanation needed] theoreticianCarl Jaenisch published a detailed article on1.e4 e5 in the December 1847 issue ofLe Palamède,[8] the world’s first chess periodical. An abridged version appeared in theChess Player's Chronicle in 1848,[9] followed by a supplementary article in the same publication in 1849.[10]

The Ruy Lopez has long been regarded as the most important opening among theOpen Games at master level. Nearly every player has employed it at some point in their career, often with both colours.[11] Due to the difficulty for Black in achievingequality, a common nickname for the opening is "The Spanish Torture".[12][13]

TheMorphy Defence (3...a6), the most popular reply, was played byPaul Morphy in the second game[14] (a draw) and fourth game[15] (a win for Morphy) of his 1858 match againstAdolf Anderssen.[16] The move gained widespread popularity and was subsequently named after him, although he was not its originator.Charles Henry Stanley played 3...a6 twice in his 1845 match, held in Morphy's hometown ofNew Orleans, againstEugène Rousseau for theUnited States Chess Championship. Stanley lost both games, although he won the match.[17]Howard Staunton also mentioned 3...a6 in hisChess-Player's Handbook, first published in 1847.[18] The first author to mention the move wasErcole del Rio, in his 1750treatiseSopra il giuoco degli Scacchi, Osservazioni pratiche dell'anonimo Modenese (On the game of Chess, practical Observations by an anonymous Modenese).[19] The late 19th century World ChampionWilhelm Steinitz did not approve of the move, writing in 1889 "on principle this ought to be disadvantageous as it drives the bishop where it wants to go". Steinitz's opinion did not prevail, however; 3...a6 is played in about two thirds of all games beginning with the Ruy Lopez.[20]

TheBerlin Defence (3...Nf6), the second most popular reply, has a reputation as a soliddrawing weapon. It gained widespread popularity in the 2000s afterVladimir Kramnik demonstrated its viability in the2000 Classical World Championship match againstGarry Kasparov, successfully using it to draw in four of Kasparov's eight games with white.

Basics

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8e8 black kingf8 black bishopg8 black knighth8 black rook8
7a7b7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7e7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black pawnd6e6f6g6h66
5a5b5c5d5e5 white knightf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4 black queene4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3g3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white kingf1g1h1 white rook1
abcdefgh
After 3...a6 4.Bxc6 dxc6 5.Nxe5 Qd4

At the most basic level, White's third move attacks the knight that defends the e5-pawn from the attack by the f3-knight. White's apparent threat to win Black's e-pawn with 4.Bxc6 dxc6 5.Nxe5 is illusory because Black can respond 5...Qd4 (diagram),forking the knight and e4-pawn, winning back thematerial with a good position.[21] White's 3.Bb5 is still a good move, however; itdevelops a piece, preparescastling, and sets up a potentialpin against Black's king. Since White's third move carries no immediate threat, Black can respond in a wide variety of ways.

An immediate choice for Black is whether to play 3...a6 or not. The point of the move is to force White to either retreat or exchange the bishop for Black's knight; thus the move "puts the question"[21] to the white bishop, a traditional usage attributed toAron Nimzowitsch.[22][23] White must decide between exchanging the bishop for the knight with 4.Bxc6, or the more common retreat 4.Ba4. If 4.Ba4, Black will have the possibility of breaking a future pin on thequeen knight by playing ...b5. White must take some care not to fall into theNoah's Ark Trap, in which Black traps White'sking bishop on the b3-square with ...a6, ...b5, and ...c4 pawn advances on thequeenside.

If Black decides not to play 3...a6, by far the most common alternative is the developing move 3...Nf6, theBerlin Defence. Less common alternatives are listed in the sectionBlack's third move alternatives.

Morphy Defence: 3...a6

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8 black bishopg8 black knighth8 black rook8
7a7b7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6e6f6g6h66
5a5b5 white bishopc5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white kingf1g1h1 white rook1
abcdefgh
Morphy Defence: 3...a6

4.Bxc6 is theExchange Variation.

Fourth move alternatives

[edit]

After 4.Ba4, the most common response is 4...Nf6. A distant second is 4...d6, the Modern Steinitz Defence, which is generally regarded as stronger than its third-move equivalent, theSteinitz Defence.

Fifth move alternatives

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8 black bishopg8h8 black rook8
7a7b7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6e6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5c5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4 white bishopb4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white kingf1g1h1 white rook1
abcdefgh
Morphy Defence after 4.Ba4 Nf6

After 4...Nf6, Morphy's choice in his games with 3...a6, Black appears to threaten the e4-pawn. However, White can eventually regain it and 5.0-0 is by far the most common response. The main alternative is 5.d3, the Anderssen Variation, which defends the pawn immediately.

After 5.0-0, Black faces a major choice. The most common continuation is thesolid 5...Be7, the Closed Defence, while 5...Nxe4, the Open Defence, and 5...b5, the Arkhangelsk Defence, represent important alternative systems.

Closed Defence: 5...Be7

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8g8h8 black rook8
7a7b7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7 black bishopf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6e6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5c5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4 white bishopb4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1f1 white rookg1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Closed Defence: 5.0-0 Be7

After 5...Be7, Black genuinely threatens to win a pawn with 6...b5 followed by 7...Nxe4, so White must respond. The usual continuation is 6.Re1, while the main alternative is 6.d3, the Martinez Variation, a modern line that has grown in popularity.

abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8g8h8 black rook8
7a7b7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7 black bishopf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6e6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5c5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4 white bishopb4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white rookf1g1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Closed Defence: 6.Re1

After 6.Re1, White threatens to win a pawn with 7.Bxc6 followed by 8.Nxe5. Black can defend the e5-pawn with 6...d6, the Averbakh Variation, but the far more popular response is 6...b5, chasing White's bishop away. After 7.Bb3, Black may choose 7...Bb7, the Trajković Variation, but far more common are 7...0-0, leading to the Marshall Attack and Anti-Marshall Systems, and 7...d6, which typically continues with 8.c3 (addressing Black's threat of 8...Na5, which would exchange the white bishop; 8.a4 is an interesting alternative). After 8...0-0, the game has reached the main line of the Ruy Lopez.

Main line: 6.Re1 b5 7.Bb3 d6 8.c3 0-0

[edit]
abcdefgh
8
a8 black rook
c8 black bishop
d8 black queen
f8 black rook
g8 black king
c7 black pawn
e7 black bishop
f7 black pawn
g7 black pawn
h7 black pawn
a6 black pawn
c6 black knight
d6 black pawn
f6 black knight
b5 black pawn
e5 black pawn
e4 white pawn
b3 white bishop
c3 white pawn
f3 white knight
a2 white pawn
b2 white pawn
d2 white pawn
f2 white pawn
g2 white pawn
h2 white pawn
a1 white rook
b1 white knight
c1 white bishop
d1 white queen
e1 white rook
g1 white king
8
77
66
55
44
33
22
11
abcdefgh
Main line: 6.Re1 b5 7.Bb3 d6 8.c3 0-0

This is the main line of the Closed Defence and is usually regarded as the main line of the Ruy Lopez as a whole. Thousands of top-level games have reached this position. With 8.c3, White prepares the central break d4 and plans the typical knight manoeuvre Nbd2–f1–g3, firmly reinforcing e4 while activating the bishops on open diagonals and directing both knights toward Black's kingside. Black, in turn, seeks to counter this plan by expanding on the queenside, challenging the centre, or increasing pressure on e4.

Two possible continuations are 9.d3 (Pilnik Variation) or 9.d4 (Yates Variation), but by far the most common move is 9.h3, which prevents the pin ...Bg4. After 9.h3, Black has several common moves, including 9...Na5 (Chigorin Variation), 9...Nb8 (Breyer Variation), 9...Bb7 (Zaitsev Variation), 9...Nd7 (Karpov Variation), 9...Be6 (Kholmov Variation), and 9...h6 (Smyslov Variation). For decades, the Chigorin Variation was Black's principal choice, but alternative lines rose to prominence in the second half of the twentieth century as players likeBoris Spassky andAnatoly Karpov sought ways to avoid the necessity of repositioning Black's awkwardly placed knight.

Pilnik Variation: 9.d3

[edit]

The Pilnik Variation, named forHermann Pilnik, is also known as the Teichmann Variation from the gameTeichmann–Schlechter,Karlsbad 1911.[24] White plays 9.d3 intending to later advance to d4 under favourable circumstances. Although d2–d3–d4 appears to lose a tempo compared to d2–d4, White may be able to omit h3 regaining the tempo, especially if Black plays ...Bb7.

The Pilnik has seen a small resurgence in recent years, but that is mainly bytransposition through 6.d3 (or 8.d3), which avoids the Marshall Attack. The line starting with 6.d3 leading to the Pilnik is 6.d3 b5 7.Bb3 d6 8.c3 0-0 9.Re1.

Yates Variation: 9.d4

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8d8 black queene8f8 black rookg8 black kingh88
7a7b7c7 black pawnd7e7 black bishopf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6 black pawne6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5 black pawnc5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4 white pawne4 white pawnf4g4 black bishoph44
3a3b3 white bishopc3 white pawnd3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2d2e2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white rookf1g1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Bogoljubow Variation: 9.d4 Bg4

White usually plays 9.h3 instead of 9.d4 because after 9...Bg4 (the Bogoljubow Variation), the pin of the white king knight is troublesome. The variation takes its name from the gameCapablanca–Bogoljubow, London 1922.[25]

After 9...Bg4, White usually plays 10.Be3, reinforcing the pawn on d4. The main line continues 10...exd4 11.cxd4 Na5 12.Bc2 c5 13.h3 (13.d5?! allows 13...Nc4 with a tempo on the e3-bishop) Bh5. The main alternative is 10.d5, with the most common continuation being 10...Na5 11.Bc2 c6 12.h3 Bc8 13.dxc6 Qc7 14.Nbd2 Qxc6 15.Nf1.

The Yates Variation can also be reached via the 8.d4 Anti-Marshall move order: 7...0-0 8.d4 d6 9.c3.

Chigorin Variation: 9.h3 Na5

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8e8f8 black rookg8 black kingh88
7a7b7c7 black queend7e7 black bishopf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6d6 black pawne6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5 black knightb5 black pawnc5 black pawnd5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4 white pawne4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3 white pawnd3e3f3 white knightg3h3 white pawn3
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white bishopd2e2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh22
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white rookf1g1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Chigorin Variation: 9.h3 Na5 10.Bc2 c5 11.d4 Qc7

The Chigorin Variation was refined byMikhail Chigorin around the turn of the 20th century and became the primary Black defence to the Ruy Lopez for more than fifty years. With 9...Na5 Black chases the white bishop from the a2–g8 diagonal and frees the c-pawn for queenside expansion. After 10.Bc2 c5 11.d4, the classical follow-up is 11...Qc7, reinforcing e5 and placing the queen on the c-file, which may later become open after ...cxd4. Other Black moves in this position are 11...Bb7 and 11...Nd7; the latter was adopted byPaul Keres a few times in the 1960s. The Chigorin Variation has declined in popularity because Black must spend time bringing the offside knight on a5 back into the game. 10...d5 is theGajewski Gambit, sacrificing the e-pawn foropen lines. This is less sound than 10...c5, but can be good in practical play.

The Chigorin is divided into fourECO classifications. In C96, Black or White deviate after 10.Bc2, and do not reach the classical main line position 10...c5 11.d4 Qc7. In C97, White proceeds from the diagram with 12.a4, 12.d5, 12.b4, or the main line 12.Nbd2 when Black responds with ...Be6, ...Rd8, ...Re8, ...Bb7, or ...Bd7. The C98 classification covers 12.Nbd2 Nc6, while C99 covers 12.Nbd2 cxd4 13.cxd4.

Breyer Variation: 9.h3 Nb8

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8f8 black rookg8 black kingh88
7a7b7c7 black pawnd7 black knighte7 black bishopf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6d6 black pawne6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5 black pawnc5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4 white pawne4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3 white bishopc3 white pawnd3e3f3 white knightg3h3 white pawn3
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2d2e2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh22
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white rookf1g1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Breyer Variation: 9.h3 Nb8 10.d4 Nbd7

With 9...Nb8, Black frees the c-pawn and intends to route the knight to d7 where it supports e5. If White fortifies the centre with 10.d3, the opening is classifiedECO code C94. The more common continuation, 10.d4, isECO C95.

The Breyer Variation was recommended byGyula Breyer as early as 1911,[26] but there are no known game records in which Breyer employed this line. The Breyer Variation did not become popular until the 1960s when it was adopted byBoris Spassky and others. In particular, Spassky's back to back wins overMikhail Tal atTbilisi in 1965 did much to enhance its reputation, and Spassky had a career-plus score with the Breyer. The variation was the choice of many top level players as White has had trouble proving an advantage against it. Nowadays, however, this variation is considered too passive, and players seeking a draw with Black against 1.e4 often prefer to play theBerlin Defence (3...Nf6) orPetrov's Defence (2...Nf6) instead.

After 10.d4, the main line continues 10.d4 Nbd7 11.Nbd2 Bb7 12.Bc2 Re8 13.Nf1 Bf8. Black is threatening to win the e4-pawn via ...exd4 uncovering an attack on the pawn, so White plays 14.Ng3. Black generally plays 14...g6 to stop White's knight from going to f5. White then usually tries to attack the Black queenside via 15.a4. Black seekscounterplay in the centre via 15...c5. White can attack either the kingside or the queenside. This forces resolution of the centre via 16.d5. Black can exploit the weak squares on the queenside via 16...c4. White will try to attack on the kingside via 17.Bg5, moving forces to the kingside. Black will kick the bishop with 17...h6. The logical retreat is 18.Be3, which is met by 18...Nc5. White plays 19.Qd2, forcing 19...h5, the point of the manoeuver being to weaken Black's kingside.

Zaitsev Variation: 9.h3 Bb7

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8d8 black queene8 black rookf8g8 black kingh88
7a7b7 black bishopc7 black pawnd7e7 black bishopf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6 black pawne6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5 black pawnc5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4 white pawne4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3 white bishopc3 white pawnd3e3f3 white knightg3h3 white pawn3
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2d2e2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh22
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white rookf1g1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Zaitsev Variation: 9.h3 Bb7 10.d4 Re8

The Zaitsev Variation (also called the Flohr–Zaitsev Variation) was advocated byIgor Zaitsev, who was one ofAnatoly Karpov's trainers for many years. A Karpov favourite, the Zaitsev remains one of the most important variations of the Ruy Lopez. With 9...Bb7 Black prepares to put more pressure on e4 following 10.d4 Re8. One drawback of this line is that White can force adraw byrepetition with 11.Ng5 Rf8 12.Nf3.

The main line continues with 11.Nbd2 Bf8. Here, White has 12.a4 (the main move), 12.d5, 12.Bc2 and 12.a3 (12.Nf1? loses a pawn after 12...exd4 13.cxd4 Na5 14.Bc2 Nxe4, where White has insufficient compensation).

With 12.a4, White pressures Black's queenside. Black usually continues with 12...h6, but the sidelines 12...Na5 and 12...Qd7 have also been tried. 12...exd4 transposes into the main line after 13.cxd4 h6 14.Bc2.

12...Na5 plans to induce a structural weakness on White’s queenside. Play continues 13.Bc2 exd4 (13...c5 is natural but less accurate, because after 14.d5 Black’s bishop on b7 is weak.) 14.cxd4 b4 15.b3 and now 15...g6. White has a slight advantage but Black hascounterplay in the form of queenside pressure.

12...Qd7 has been favoured by Karpov, who played this move against Kasparov in theWorld Chess Championship 1984 andWorld Chess Championship 1985.

12...h6 is the main line. Play continues 13.Bc2 (13.d5 is a sideline, after 13...Nb8 Black is doing well) exd4 14.cxd4 Nb4 15.Bb1 c5 16.d5 Nd7 17.Ra3 (planning to transfer the rook to e3, f3 or g3) c4 (17...f5 is a sharp but risky alternative) 18.axb5 axb5 19.Nd4 Rxa3 20.bxa3 Nd3 21.Bxd3 cxd3 22.Re3 Nc5 23.Bb2 Qa5 24.Nf5 g6 25.Ng3, and theory ends. In this position, it is not clear if White has an advantage. Black has thebishop pair and apassed pawn on d3. This is why alternatives to 12.a4 are being played more recently.

Another option after 11...Bf8 is 12.a3. With a3, White controls the b4-square further, preventing Nc6–Nb4 ideas, and freeing up the a2-square for her light-squared bishop. Black has two options, 12...h6 or the sideline 12...g6, which plans to fianchetto the bishop, but gives White an advantage after 13.Ba2 Bg7 14.b4, where White has a space advantage and locks down the queenside. After 12...h6, play usually continues with 13.Bc2 Nb8. White can then choose between 14.b3 and 14.b4. 14.b4 increases control over c5. Play continues 14...Nbd7 15.Bb2, where Black has 15...g6 and 15...c5. The latter is less popular; after 16.bxc5 exd4 17.cxd4 dxc5 18.d5 c4, Black's position is objectively fine but harder to play from a practical standpoint compared to White's position. Therefore, Black more commonly plays 15...g6. White continues 16.Qb1, where Black continues with either 16...Bg7, where theory continues 17.Nb3 Rc8 18.Na5 Ba8 19.d5 or 16...Rb8 (planning to immediately play Ba8 in anticipation of Nb3–Na5), where play continues 17.Nb3 Ba8 18.Na5 c5 19.d5 c4.

The old continuation is 12.Bc2. White wants to fortify the e-pawn, which is under pressure, and aim for a setup with d5, followed by c4, b3 forming apawn chain, then Be3 followed by Nf1. White always immediately responds to Rec8 (or Rac8) with Rc1. Black aims to pressure White's queenside with moves like Nc6–b8–d7 (like in the Breyer), Qc7, Rac8, c7–c6, a6–a5. White aims to attack Black's kingside, Black on the other hand wants to attack White's queenside. Black often plays g6, but does not fianchetto the bishop because controlling the a3–f8 diagonal is crucial as the d-pawn is weak in this variation as Black has played c7–c6; for example, 12...g6 13.d5 Nb8 14.b3 Nbd7 15.c4 c6 16.Nf1 Qc7 17.Be3 Rec8 18.Rc1 a5 19.Ng3 and 19...Bg7? loses a pawn after 20.dxc6 Bxc6 21.cxb5 Bxb5 22.Bd3 Qb7 23.Rxc8+ Rxc8 24.Bxb5 Qxb5 25.Qxd6.

White can also play 12.d5 to exchange the d-pawn with Black's c-pawn, leading to a more open game. The main continuation is 12...Nb8 13.Nf1 Nbd7. White can play the forcing 14.N3h2, which continues 14...Nc5 15.Bc2 c6 16.b4 Ncd7 17.dxc6 Bxc6 18.Bg5 h6 19.Bxf6 Nxf6 20.Ng4 Nxg4 21.Qxg4, where Black has the bishop pair, but the quality of Black's pieces are worse. Another option for White is 14.Ng3, keeping more pieces on the board, where play continues 14...Nc5 15.Bc2 c6 16.b4 Ncd7 17.dxc6 Bxc6 18.Bb3 (Ng5 is threatened) h6. White’s pieces are more active but has weak pawns on e4 and c3.

Karpov Variation: 9.h3 Nd7

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8f8 black rookg8 black kingh88
7a7b7c7 black pawnd7 black knighte7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6 black pawne6f6 black bishopg6h66
5a5b5 black pawnc5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4 white pawne4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3 white bishopc3 white pawnd3e3f3 white knightg3h3 white pawn3
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2d2e2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh22
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white rookf1g1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Karpov Variation: 9.h3 Nd7 10.d4 Bf6

Karpov tried 9...Nd7 several times in the1990 World Championship match, butKasparov achieved a significant advantage against it in the 18th game. It is solid but slightly passive. Confusingly, 9...Nd7 is also called the Chigorin Variation, so there are two Ruy Lopez variations with that name, but 9...Na5 is the move more commonly associated withChigorin. This defence is also known as the Keres Variation, after Paul Keres.

With 9...Nd7, Black frees up f6 for the bishop, aiming for a setup with ...Bf6, ...Nd7–Nb6, and ...Bb7. Play continues with 10.d4 Bf6 11.a4 Bb7. Now, White continues with 12.Na3; in the Karpov Ruy Lopez the knight usually goes to Na3 instead of Nbd2–f1–g3 to put more pressure on Black's queenside, and it can also be transferred to c2, preventing Black's knight from moving to b4 and where it can move to e3 or b4 if the situation calls for it. The main line continues 12...exd4 13.cxd4 Re8 14.axb5 axb5 15.Bf4 Na5 16.Bc2 b4 17.Nb5 Bc6 18.Qd3 b3 19.Bb1 Qb8 20.Nc3, where White has a space advantage.

White can opt for 12.d5 instead of 12.Na3 for closed positions, where play continues 12...Ne7 13.axb5 axb5 14.Rxa8 Qxa8 15.Na3 Ba6 16.Nc2 Nc5 17.Nb4 and either 18.Nb4 or 18.Bc2.

Kholmov Variation: 9.h3 Be6

[edit]

The Kholmov Variation, 9...Be6, was popular in the 1980s but is now played less often at the master level. The main line runs 10.d4 Bxb3 11.axb3 (11.Qxb3 is another option) exd4 12.cxd4 d5 13.e5 Ne4 14.Nc3 f5 15.exf6 Bxf6 16.Nxe4 dxe4 17.Rxe4 Qd5 18.Rg4, when it has been shown that White's extra pawn is more valuable than Black's more active and harmonised pieces.

Smyslov Variation: 9.h3 h6

[edit]

The Smyslov Variation (ECO C93) is a plan similar to that of the Zaitsev Variation. With 9...h6, Black prepares to play 10...Re8 and 11...Bf8 without fear of 10.Ng5. The loss of a tempo with 9...h6 gives White enough time to complete the Nbd2–f1–g3 manoeuver, and the pawn move can also weaken Black's kingside. The Zaitsev can be considered to be an improved Smyslov in which Black tries to save a tempo by omitting ...h6. Black sometimes plays ...h6 later in the Zaitsev, however.

Kasparov played the Smyslov Variation in a loss to theDeep Blue chess computer inGame 2 of their1997 Man vs Machine match.[27]

Svetozar Gligorić has been the most prolific C93 player.[28]

Other lines

[edit]
  • 9.a4 after 9...b4 10. a5 transposes to a line in the 8.a4 Anti-Marshall, which goes 8.a4 b4 9.a5 d6 10.c3.
  • 9.a3 (Suetin Variation)
  • 9.Bc2 (Lutikov Variation)
  • 9.h3 Qd7 is another variation byVasily Smyslov.
  • 9.h3 Re8 10.d4 transposes either into theZaitsev Variation after 10...Bb7 or theSmyslov Variation after 10...h6.

Marshall Attack and Anti-Marshall Systems: 7...0-0

[edit]

Black may depart from the main line after 3...a6 4.Ba4 Nf6 5.0-0 Be7 6.Re1 b5 7.Bb3 by castling with 7...0-0. Black then intends to meet 8.c3 with 8...d5, offering a pawn in exchange for active play against White’s king. To avoid this highly theoretical gambit, White often chooses one of the eighth-move alternatives (8.a4, 8.h3, 8.d4, or 8.d3), collectively known as the Anti-Marshall Systems, which aim to discourage Black from executing the ...d5 break. When White chooses 8.c3, Black may also transpose to themain line with 8...d6, a practical option for players who do not mind facing an Anti-Marshall variation but still prefer the main line to the Marshall Attack.

Marshall Attack: 8.c3 d5

[edit]
Main article:Ruy Lopez, Marshall Attack
Marshall Attack
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8f8 black rookg8 black kingh88
7a7b7c7 black pawnd7e7 black bishopf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6e6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5 black pawnc5d5 black pawne5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3 white bishopc3 white pawnd3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2d2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white rookf1g1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
7...0-0 8.c3 d5
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8f8 black rookg8 black kingh88
7a7b7c7d7e7 black bishopf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black pawnd6e6f6g6h66
5a5b5 black pawnc5d5 black knighte5 white rookf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4e4f4g4h44
3a3b3 white bishopc3 white pawnd3e3f3g3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2d2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1f1g1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Main line: 9.exd5 Nxd5 10.Nxe5 Nxe5 11.Rxe5 c6; in 1918 Marshall played 11...Nf6 instead.[29]

One of Black's more aggressive alternatives, the Marshall Attack is agambit as 8...d5 sacrifices a pawn. The line beginning with 9.exd5 e4 is known as the Steiner Variation[30], named after the American chess playerHerman Steiner. The main line of the Marshall Attack begins with 9.exd5 Nxd5 10.Nxe5 Nxe5 11.Rxe5 c6 (Marshall's original moves, 11...Nf6, and 11...Bb7, are also playable). To the casual observer it might seem that Black has been careless and lost a pawn, but the sacrifice has also stripped off White's kingside defenders, given Black a lead indevelopment, and rendered White's 8.c3 irrelevant. Black generally goes all-in with a massive kingside attack, which has been analysed to great depth (sometimes beyond move 30) with no definite conclusion as to the Marshall's soundness. It is a sharp opening system in which a great amount of theoretical knowledge is vital, and many White players, includingGarry Kasparov, avoid it by playing one of the Anti-Marshall systems: 8.d3, 8.d4, 8.a4, or 8.h3 instead of 8.c3.[31][32] In these lines, attempting to play similarly to the Marshall with 8...d5 allows White's knight on b1 to eventually develop to c3, while it is blocked from doing so by White's own pawn in the Marshall.

This gambit became famous whenFrank James Marshall used it as aprepared variation againstJosé Raúl Capablanca in 1918; nevertheless, Capablanca found a way through the complications and won.[29][33] It is often said that Marshall had kept this gambit a secret for use against Capablanca since his defeat in their 1909 match.[34] The most common counterclaim is that Marshall had used a similar approach in 1917, playing the Steiner Variation against Walter Frere.[35] However, chesshistorianEdward Winter found no clear evidence of the date for the Frere game; several games between 1910 and 1918 where Marshall passed up opportunities to use the Marshall Attack against Capablanca; and a game byCarl Walbrodt from 1893[36] that used the same line as in Frere vs Marshall.[37]

The Marshall Attack has been adopted by top players includingBoris Spassky,John Nunn, andMichael Adams. In theClassical World Chess Championship 2004, challengerPeter Leko used the Marshall to win an important game against World ChampionVladimir Kramnik.[38] Currently, Armenian grandmasterLevon Aronian is one of the main advocates for the Marshall Attack.[39]

Anti-Marshall Systems

[edit]

8.a4

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8d8 black queene8f8 black rookg8 black kingh88
7a7b7c7 black pawnd7e7 black bishopf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6 black pawne6 black bishopf6 black knightg6h66
5a5 white pawnb5c5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4 black pawnc4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3 white bishopc3d3 white pawne3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2b2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2e2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white rookf1g1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
8.a4 Anti-Marshall, main line: 8.a4 b4 9.d3 d6 10.a5 Be6

The 8.a4 Anti-Marshall is the most popular way for White to avoid the Marshall after 7...0-0. The main line is 8...b4 9.d3 d6 10.a5 Be6. After this, 11.Nbd2 and 11.Bxe6 are the best moves for White.

8.h3

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8d8 black queene8f8 black rookg8 black kingh88
7a7b7 black bishopc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7 black bishopf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6e6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5 black pawnc5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3 white bishopc3d3 white pawne3f3 white knightg3h3 white pawn3
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2e2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh22
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white rookf1g1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
8.h3 Anti-Marshall, main line: 8.h3 Bb7 9.d3

8.h3 aims to transpose back into the main line with 8...d6 9.c3. The typical central break 8...d5 is less effective: 9.exd5 Nxd5 10.Nxe5 Nxe5 11.Rxe5 c6 (or 11...Bb7 12.d3, which transposes to 8.h3 Bb7 9.d3 d5 10.exd5 Nxd5 11.Nxe5 Nxe5 12.Rxe5) 12.Re1!; the c3-square is available to the knight, giving White a significant advantage.

The main continuation is 8...Bb7 9.d3, whereas 9.c3 is inaccurate because after 9...d5 10.exd5 Nxd5, White cannot continue with the Marshall-like 11.Nxe5? Nxe5 12.Rxe5 due to the strong move 12...Nf4.

After 8.h3 Bb7 9.d3, Black can play the solid 9...d6, posing the positional threat of 10...Na5. White should respond with 10.a3, 10.a4 or 10.c3 to create space for the light-squared bishop.

After 8.h3 Bb7 9.d3, Black can also play 9...d5 in typical Marshall Attack style. Following 10.exd5 Nxd5 11.Nxe5, Black targets White's light-squared bishop with 11...Nd4 (11...Nxe5 12.Rxe5 Qd6 is a viable alternative). With active piece play and a lead in development, Black gains sufficient compensation for White's extra pawn. This position was reached in game six of the2016 World Championship match betweenSergey Karjakin andMagnus Carlsen.[40]

Other lines

[edit]
  • The 8.d4 Anti-Marshall immediately strikes at Black's centre. 8...exd4 is met with 9.e5, where Black's position is too passive. Therefore, Black either plays 8...d6, which after 9.c3 transposes to the Yates Variation, or 8...Nxd4. Against 8...Nxd4, White can either play 9.Nxd4, where play continues 9...exd4 10.e5 Ne8 with both 11.c3 and Qxd4 as good options for White, or 9.Bxf7+, where play continues 9...Rxf7 10.Nxe5 Rf8 11.Qxd4.
  • The 8.d3 Anti-Marshall most often continues 8...d6 9.c3, transposing to thePilnik Variation. 9.Bd2, 9.a4, 9.a3, and 8...Bb7 are also seen.

Closed Defence: deviations from the main line

[edit]

Modern line: 6.d3

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8g8h8 black rook8
7a7b7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7 black bishopf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6e6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5c5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4 white bishopb4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3 white pawne3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2e2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1f1 white rookg1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Modern line: 6.d3
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8f8 black rookg8 black kingh88
7a7b7c7 black pawnd7e7 black bishopf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6 black pawne6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5 black pawnc5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3 white pawnb3 white bishopc3 white knightd3 white pawne3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2b2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2e2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1c1 white bishopd1 white queene1f1 white rookg1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Modern linetabiya: 6.d3 b5 7.Bb3 d6 8.a3 0-0 9.Nc3

By playing 6.d3, often called the Martinez Variation,[41] White steers clear of theMarshall Attack and any of theAnti-Marshall lines. White threatens 7.Bxc6 winning the e5-pawn leaving Black a choice of either 6...d6 or 6...b5. After 6...d6 the e5-pawn is firmly defended and Black threatens to trade off White's Ruy Lopez bishop with 7...b5 and 8...Na5. White normally continues with 7.c3, and after 8...0-0 White can choose between 9.Nbd2 or 9 Re1. More common is 6...b5 7.Bb3 d6 (7...0-0 is a viable alternative), after which White must address the threat of 8...Na5. Following 8.a3 (the alternatives 8.c3 0-0 and 8.a4 Bd7 are equally playable), Black typically continues with 8...0-0, though the immediate 8...Na5 is also feasible. After 9.Nc3, we arrive at a moderntabiya of the Ruy Lopez (second diagram). This position was first reached in a high-level encounter betweenViswanathan Anand andMichael Adams at theGrenke Chess Classic in 2013.[42]

This variation can transpose into 6.Re1 lines but with a potentially advantageous move order. For example, in the8.a4 Anti-Marshall which can ensue after 6.Re1, one of the main lines is 8...Bb7 9.d3, which can also be reached by way of 6.d3 b5 7.Bb3 0-0 8.a4 Bb7 9.Re1. A perhaps more challenging response to the Anti-Marshall is 8...b4, after which White may wish to ambitiously play 9.a5 (preventing ...Na5) d6 10.d3 Be6!, where White cannot avoid the trade of bishops (the main moves being either 11.Bxe6 or 11.Nbd2 Bxb3). If Black elects not to exchange, however, we may see 11.Nbd2 Rb8 12.Nc4 where White may retain some pull in the position. On the other hand, to be considered is 6.d3 b5 7.Bb3 0-0 8.a4 b4 9.a5 d6 10.Nbd2 Be6 11.Nc4!, where White has avoided the exchange and can transpose directly to the Anti-Marshall line if desired by playing Re1 later. Play may also in some rare cases transpose to a traditional closed Spanish (with 7...d6) after something like 6.d3 d6 7.c3 0-0 8.Re1 b5 9.Bc2 Bb7 10.Nbd2 Re8 11.h3 Bf8 12.d4, reaching a reasonably well-trodden position in the Zaitsev system, though both players may deviate at many points in this line.

It is also possible to transpose to thePilnik Variation after 6...b5 7.Bb3 d6 8.c3 0-0 and 9.Re1, thereby successfully avoiding the Marshall Attack (which the Pilnik Variation itself does not do). In general, if 6...b5 7.Bb3 d6 8.c3, positions could resemble a traditional closed Spanish such as the Zaitsev, Flohr, Smyslov, Karpov, Breyer, or Chigorin where White has played 10.d3 (or in the case of the Chigorin, 11.d3 with 10.Bc2 c5 included) instead of 10.d4 (in the case of the Chigorin, 11.d4) if White plays Re1 and h3. In every case, 10.d3 is far less popular than 10.d4 (again, 11.d4 for Chigorin), but is the only move besides d4 to ever be seriously considered. 10.d3 in those variations are often referred to as the 'quiet' variation of that variation (quiet Breyer, quiet Flohr, quiet Chigorin, etc). In the case of Flohr–Zaitsev-type setups, White may quickly push d3–d4 without h3 and lose a tempo compared to the traditional Zaitsev, but the move h3 is what would be lost, which is not so relevant with the bishop already committed to b7, so the only thing h3 provides isluft (an idea shared with the Pilnik).

6.d3 has gained wide popularity among the top players and has become a frequent alternative to the Ruy Lopezmain line with 6.Re1.

Worrall Attack: 6.Qe2

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8g8h8 black rook8
7a7b7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7 black bishopf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6e6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5c5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4 white bishopb4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2 white queenf2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1e1f1 white rookg1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Worrall Attack: 6.Qe2

In the Worrall Attack (ECO C86), White replaces 6.Re1 with 6.Qe2. The idea is that the queen will support the e-pawn, leaving the rook free to move to d1 to support the advance of the d-pawn, although there is not always time for this. Play normally continues 6...b5 7.Bb3 followed by 7...0-0 8.c3 and 8...d5 or 8...d6.

Paul Keres played the line several times. More recently,Sergei Tiviakov has played it, as hasNigel Short, who essayed it twice in his 1992 match againstAnatoly Karpov and won both games.[43][44]

Morphy Attack: 6.Nc3

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8g8h8 black rook8
7a7b7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7 black bishopf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6e6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5c5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4 white bishopb4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3 white knightd3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1c1 white bishopd1 white queene1f1 white rookg1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Morphy Attack: 6.Nc3

The Morphy Attack (ECO C84) is named after Paul Morphy, who introduced the idea in a 1859blindfoldsimul.[45] It is aggressive and may lead to a slight edge for White, but less than in 6.Re1 and 6.d3. Similar to those two moves, White's defence of the e4-pawn compels Black to drive away White's bishop with 6...b5 (6...d6 is also possible, but less popular). After 7.Bb3, Black can play 7...0-0 or 7...d6. Note that Marshall attack-style ideas of 7...0-0 and playing ...d5 next, sacrificing a pawn, make little sense when White's knight on c3 both controls d5 and means White has a more developed queenside, one of the upsides of the Marshall usually being White's underdeveloped queenside. The main line of 7...d6, 8.Nd5 Na5 9.Nxe7 Qxe7 10.d3 0-0, with Black eventually relinquishing White of the bishop pair with ...Nxb3, shows a common attacking idea in the Morphy Attack; Nd5. In the main line, 8...Nxd5? is wrong because 9.Bxd5! leaves White with a strong bishop on the outpost square d5, exerting a troublesome pin on the undefended c6-knight. After 7...0-0, 8.d3 transposes to one of the main lines of 6.d3, with 6...b5 7.Bb3 0-0 8.Nc3.Paul Keres andBoris Spassky have both played the line a few times throughout their careers (both playing it against one another once), andSiegbert Tarrasch played it three times in his 1911 match against Schlechter (scoring 1 win, 1 draw, 1 loss in that order), but it remains the least popular option for White on move 6.

Averbakh Variation: 6.Re1 d6

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8g8h8 black rook8
7a7b7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7e7 black bishopf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6 black pawne6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5c5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4 white bishopb4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white rookf1g1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Averbakh Variation: 6.Re1 d6

In the Averbakh Variation (C87), named forYuri Averbakh, Black defends the threatened e-pawn with 6...d6 instead of driving away the white bishop with the more common 6...b5. This defence shares some similarities with theModern Steinitz Defence andRussian Defence as Black avoids the ...b5 advance that weakens the queenside. White can reply with either 7.Bxc6 bxc6 8.d4 or 7.c3 Bg4 (it is too late for Black to transpose into the more usual lines of the Closed Defence, because 7...b5 would allow 8.Bc2, saving White a tempo over the two-move sequence Bb3–c2 found in other variations). Thepin temporarily prevents White from playing d2–d4. In response, White can either force d4 with 8.h3 Bh5 9.Bxc6 bxc6 10.d4, or postpone d4 for the time being and play 8.d3 followed by manoeuvering the queen knight to the kingside with Nbd2–f1–g3.

Trajković Variation: 6.Re1 b5 7.Bb3 Bb7

[edit]

After 6.Re1 b5 7.Bb3, an alternative to 7...0-0 and 7...d6 is 7...Bb7. This is known as the Trajković Variation.[citation needed] Black may sacrifice a pawn in the style of the Marshall Attack with 8.c3 d5 9.exd5 Nxd5 10.Nxe5 Nxe5 11.Rxe5 Nf4 (11...0-0 transposes to a line in theMarshall Attack). 8.d3 transposes to theArkhangelsk Defence with 6...Bb7.

Other lines

[edit]
  • 6.Bxc6 is known as the Steenwijker Variation, Delayed Exchange Variation Deferred, or Exchange Variation Doubly Deferred (ECO C85). It loses a tempo compared to the Exchange Variation, though in compensation, the black knight on f6 and bishop on e7 are awkwardly placed. The knight on f6 prevents Black from supporting the e-pawn with ...f7–f6, and the bishop is somewhat passively posted on e7.
  • 6.d4 is the Centre Attack or Centre Variation (ECO C84). It leads to sharp play. After 6...exd4 (6...Nxe4 and 6...b5 are viable alternatives) 7.Re1 b5 (7...0-0 8.e5 Ne8 is a playable alternative) White can play either 8.Bb3 or the sharp 8.e5. In case of the immediate 7.e5 Black takes advantage of the absence of the white rook from e1 and plays 7...Ne4 with the idea of 8...Nc5.

Open Defence: 5...Nxe4

[edit]
abcdefgh
8
a8 black rook
d8 black queen
e8 black king
f8 black bishop
h8 black rook
c7 black pawn
f7 black pawn
g7 black pawn
h7 black pawn
a6 black pawn
c6 black knight
e6 black bishop
b5 black pawn
d5 black pawn
e5 white pawn
e4 black knight
b3 white bishop
f3 white knight
a2 white pawn
b2 white pawn
c2 white pawn
f2 white pawn
g2 white pawn
h2 white pawn
a1 white rook
b1 white knight
c1 white bishop
d1 white queen
f1 white rook
g1 white king
8
77
66
55
44
33
22
11
abcdefgh
Open Defence, main line: 6.d4 b5 7.Bb3 d5 8.dxe5 Be6

In the Open Defence, Black tries to make use of the time White will take to regain the pawn to establish a foothold in the centre. Play usually continues 6.d4 b5 7.Bb3 d5 8.dxe5 Be6. The move 8.dxe5 leads to White attacking Black's pawn on d5 with two pieces, all but forcing Black's response 8...Be6, the only way to both defend the pawn and develop a new piece. White then has a variety of options at move nine, including 9.c3, 9.Be3, 9.Qe2, and 9.Nbd2.

Classical Variation: 6.d4 b5 7.Bb3 d5 8.dxe5 Be6 9.c3

[edit]

Here, Black has a choice between 9...Be7 and the more aggressive 9...Bc5.

After 9...Be7, White most often continues 10.Nbd2, but 10.Be3, 10.Bc2, 10.Re1, and other moves are also seen. After 10.Nbd2, Black usually plays 10...0-0, with the common continuation 11.Bc2 f5 12.Nb3 Qd7, or 10...Nc5, which usually transposes to theBernstein Variation after 11.Bc2.

After the more aggressive 9...Bc5, White's most common move is 10.Nbd2, which almost always continues 10...0-0 11.Bc2. Black must meet the attack on e4, with the following possibilities from which to choose: 11...f5, 11...Bf5, both of which aim to maintain the strongpoint on e4, or the forcing line 11...Nxf2, introduced by the English amateur Vernon Dilworth.

11...e5 is an older continuation. After 12.Nb3 Bb6 13.Nfd4 Nxd4 14.Nxd4 Bxd4, White can gain some advantage withBogoljubov's 15.Qxd4. Instead, the sharp La Grande Variation continues 15.cxd4 f4 16.f3 Ng3 17.hxg3 fxg3 18.Qd3 Bf5 19.Qxf5 Rxf5 20.Bxf5 Qh4 21.Bh3 Qxd4+ 22.Kh1 Qxe5, with unclear consequences. Perhaps the most famous game in this variation isSmyslov–Reshevsky, 1945 USSR–USA Radio Match.[46] An analysis of the line had just been published in a Russian chess magazine, and Smyslov was able to follow it to quickly obtain a winning position. Reshevsky had not seen the analysis and he struggled in vain to solve the position over the board with hischess clock running.

11...Bf5 most often continues 12.Nb3 Bg6 13.Nfd4 Bxd4 14.cxd4 a5 15.Be3 a4, followed by 16.Nd2 a3 17.Nxe4 axb2 18.Rb1 Bxe4 19.Rxb2 Qd7 20.Bd3 Bxd3 21.Qxd3, or alternatively 15.Nd2 f6 or 15.Nc1 a3.

Dilworth Variation: 9...Bc5 10.Nbd2 0-0 11.Bc2 Nxf2

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8d8 black queene8f8 black rookg8 black kingh88
7a7b7c7 black pawnd7e7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6e6 black bishopf6g6h66
5a5b5 black pawnc5 black bishopd5 black pawne5 white pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4e4f4g4h44
3a3b3c3 white pawnd3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white bishopd2 white knighte2f2 black knightg2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1c1 white bishopd1 white queene1f1 white rookg1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Dilworth Variation: 9.c3 Bc5 10.Nbd2 0-0 11.Bc2 Nxf2

After this move, the continuation 12.Rxf2 f6 13.exf6 Bxf2+ 14.Kxf2 Qxf6 has scored well for Black, with many traps for the ill-prepared White player. The main line leads to unbalanced endgames which are difficult to play for both sides, though with a strong drawing tendency.Artur Yusupov is one of the fewgrandmasters who has adopted the Dilworth repeatedly.[47][48][49] White has the alternative move of 13.Nf1, which continues 13...Bxf2+ 14.Kxf2 fxe5 15.Kg1.

The variation can also be reached via 11...Bxf2, with the line 12.Rxf2 Nxf2 13.Kxf2 f6 14.exf6 Qxf6 reaching the same position as the main line, though White can instead play 14.Nf1 or 14.Kg1 to transpose to the 13.Nf1 line.

Bernstein Variation: 9.Nbd2

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8d8 black queene8 black kingf8 black bishopg8h8 black rook8
7a7b7c7 black pawnd7e7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6e6 black bishopf6g6h66
5a5b5 black pawnc5 black knightd5 black pawne5 white pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4e4f4g4h44
3a3b3 white bishopc3 white pawnd3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2d2 white knighte2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1c1 white bishopd1 white queene1f1 white rookg1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Bernstein Variation, main line: 9.Nbd2 Nc5 10.c3

This move aims to limit Black's options, and is the preferred move ofAnatoly Karpov. Black's usual next move is 9...Nc5, with White almost always responding with 10.c3. Black can then respond with 10...Be7, a line also often reached from the Classical Variation after 9.c3 Be7 10.Nc5 Be7, or 10...d4. Black can also opt to play 9...Be7 and then 10...0-0 (or transpose with 10...Nc5).

In the 1978 Karpov–KorchnoiWorld Chess Championship match, following 9.Nbd2 Nc5 10.c3 d4, Karpov introduced the surprising 11.Ng5!?, a move suggested by his trainer,Igor Zaitsev.[50] If Black takes the knight with 11...Qxg5, White regains the material with 12.Qf3. This variation played a decisive role in a later World Championship match,Kasparov–Anand 1995, when Anand was unable to successfully defend as Black.[51]

Howell Attack: 9.Qe2

[edit]

In the Howell Attack (ECO C81), White aims for play against d5 after Rd1. The game usually continues 9...Be7 10.Rd1 followed by 10...Nc5 or 10...0-0.Paul Keres played this line againstMax Euwe andSamuel Reshevsky at theWorld Chess Championship tournament 1948.[52][53] This has been played at the top by World No.2Fabiano Caruana among others, and he recommends this in his video series for Chessbase.

Riga Variation: 6...exd4

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8g8h8 black rook8
7a7b7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7e7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 white knightd6e6f6g6h66
5a5b5c5d5 black pawne5f5g5h55
4a4 white bishopb4c4d4e4 black knightf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3g3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2e2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 black bishop2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white rookf1g1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Riga Variation, drawing trap: 6.d4 exd4 7.Re1 d5 8.Nxd4 Bd6 9.Nxc6 Bxh2+; Black can force a draw after 10.Kxh2?, better is 10.Kh1

This variation is considered inferior. The main line runs 7.Re1 d5 8.Nxd4 Bd6! 9.Nxc6 Bxh2+! 10.Kh1! Qh4 11.Rxe4+! dxe4 12.Qd8+! Qxd8 13.Nxd8+ Kxd8 14.Kxh2 Be6 (14...f5?? 15.Bg5#) and now theendgame is considered to favour White after 15.Be3 or Nd2 (but not 15.Nc3 c5!, playing to trap the bishop). A famous example of this line is the gameJosé Raúl Capablanca–Edward Lasker, New York 1915.[54] White is objectively better here, but Black keeps some good practical chances owing to the sharp positions that occur.

White must be careful to play 10.Kh1 in the main line instead of the intuitive 10.Kxh2, because after 10.Kxh2 Qh4+ 11.Kg1 Qxf2+, Black can force a draw byperpetual check.

White also has the notable eighth move alternatives of 8.Bg5, the Berger Variation, and 8.c4.

Other lines

[edit]
  • In the main line 6.d4 b5 7.Bb3 d5 8.dxe5 Be6, 9.Be3 is often used to transpose into the main line with 9.c3 Be7, while removing the option of 9.c3 Bc5.
  • After 6.d4 b5 7.Bb3, 7...exd4 is weak due to 8.Re1 d5 9.Nc3!, seen inBobby Fischer–Petar Trifunović,Bled 1961.[55]
  • 6.d4 b5 7.Bb3 d5 8.Nxe5, once adopted by Fischer, is also playable. Black should equalise after the accurate 8...Nxe5 9.dxe5 c6, which avoids prematurely committing the light-squared bishop and solidly defends d5, often a problem in the Open.
  • 6.d4 b5 7.Nxe5 is the rarely seen Friess Attack. It usually continues 7...Nxe5 8.dxe5, and from there either 8...Nc5 9.Bb3 Nxb3 10.axb3 Bb7 or 8...d5 9.Bb3, transposing to Fischer's line above. 7...bxa4 is also possible, with White planning Qe2 and Nxc6.
  • 6.d4 b5 7.d5 is the Richter Variation. It most often continues 7...bxa4 (or 7...Ne7 8.Re1) 8.dxc6 d6 9.c4 Be7. White can regain the pawn with 10.Qxa4, but the line is not well regarded.
  • 6.d4 Be7 most often continues 7.Re1 b5 8.Rxe4 d5 9.Nxe5 Nxe5 10.Rxe5 bxa4. Black can be forced to delay castling after 11.Qe2 due to the pressure on Black's bishop on e7, with the usual responses 11...Be6, 11...c6, and 11...f6. The line can also be reached via 6.d4 b5 7.Bb3 Be7. Black cannot play 9...dxe4 due to 10.Nxc6, forcing Black to move the queen, followed by 11.Nxe7.
  • 6.Re1 is White's main sixth move alternative. It most often continues 6...Nc5 7.Bxc6 dxc6 8.Nxe5 Be7 9.d4 Ne6 10.Be3 0-0, and from there often 11.c4 f6 12.Nf3; 8.d4 Ne6 9.Nxe5 Be7 transposes to the same line.

Arkhangelsk Defence: 5...b5 6.Bb3

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8 black bishopg8h8 black rook8
7a7b7c7 black pawnd7 black pawne7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6e6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5 black pawnc5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3 white bishopc3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1f1 white rookg1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Arkhangelsk Defence: 5...b5 6.Bb3

The Arkhangelsk Defence (or Archangel Defence) (ECO C78) was popularized by Soviet players from the city ofArkhangelsk such as GMVladimir Malaniuk. After 5...b5 6.Bb3, Black usually continues with 6...Bb7 or 6...Bc5.

Traditional line: 6...Bb7

[edit]

This line often leads to sharp positions in which Black wagers that the fianchettoed bishop's influence on the centre and kingside will offset Black's delay in castling. It is tactically justified by Black's ability to meet 7.Ng5 with 7...d5 8.exd5 Nd4! (not 8...Nxd5, when White gets the advantage with 9.Qh5 g6 10.Qf3). White has several options, including attempting to build an idealpawn centre with the immediate 7.c3 and 8.d4, defending the e4-pawn with 7.Re1, or simply developing with 7.d3.

Modern Arkhangelsk Defence: 6...Bc5

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8g8h8 black rook8
7a7b7c7 black pawnd7 black pawne7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6e6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5 black pawnc5 black bishopd5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3 white bishopc3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1f1 white rookg1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Modern Arkhangelsk Defence: 6...Bc5

The Modern Arkhangelsk Defence (or Modern Archangel Defence) (ECO C78), sometimes called the Neo-Arkhangelsk or Neo-Archangel, is a refinement of the regular Arkhangelsk Defence by incorporating ideas similar to the Møller Defence. The traditional line continues 7.c3 d6 8.d4 (8.a4 Rb8 transposes to the modern main line 7.a4) 8...Bb6 and Black's position is fine. A key justification of the line is that after 9.dxe5 Nxe5 10.Nxe5 dxe5 11.Qxd8+ Kxd8 12.Bxf7 White appears to win a pawn, but after 12...Rf8 13.Bd5 Nxd5 14.exd5 Bb7 Black recovers the pawn with an equal position (if 13.Bb3 Nxe4 14.Bd5? attempting to fork the two pieces, 14...Nxf2! wins for Black with a devastating attack).[56]

The Modern Arkhangelsk started to gain popularity in the 1990s (due significantly to the efforts of Alexei Shirov) when the main continuation 7.a4 Rb8 8.c3 d6 9.d4 Bb6 was established (7...Bb7 is also possible, leading to positions similar to the traditional Arkhangelsk). A typical idea is to play ...Bg4 to increase the pressure against White's pawn centre. Critical modern tries for White include targeting the b5 pawn with 10.Na3, leading to sharp positions where Black often sacrifices that pawn, or 10.a5, gaining space on the queenside and where the pawn is known to be tactically immune from capture.[57][58]Fabiano Caruana is one of the most notable recent exponents of this variation, employing it in theCandidates Tournament 2020.[59][60]

Other lines

[edit]
  • 6...Be7 usually continues with 7.Re1, transposing to themain line after 7...d6 or to theMarshall Attack and Anti-Marshall Systems after 7...0-0. White can also opt to play 7.d4, usually continuing 7...d6 and then 8.c3 0-0 (or 8...Bg4), with transposition to the main line possible if White later plays Re1, or 8.dxe5, which usually leads to anendgame after 8...dxe5 9.Qxd8+ Kxd8 or 8...Nxe5 9.Nxe5 dxe5 10.Qxd8+ Kxd8. 7.d3 and 7.a4 are also possible alternatives for White.
  • 6...d6 usually continues with 7.Re1 or 7.c3, both most often transposing to the main line after 7...Be7, though in the latter case White can avoid the transposition by not playing Re1. 7.a4 and 7.Ng5 are also possible.
  • 6...Nxe4 usually transposes to theOpen Defence after 7.d4, but an independent line with 7.Re1 is also possible. Its usual continuations are 7...d5 8.Nc3 Nxc3 9.dxc3 Be6 10.a4 and 7...Nc5 8.Bd5.

White's fifth move alternatives

[edit]

Anderssen Variation: 5.d3

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8 black bishopg8h8 black rook8
7a7b7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6e6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5c5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4 white bishopb4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3 white pawne3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2e2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white kingf1g1h1 white rook1
abcdefgh
Anderssen Variation: 5.d3

5.d3 (ECO C77) is the most popular alternative to 5.0-0. It defends the e4-pawn and indirectly threatens the e5-pawn with Bxc6 followed by Nxe5, since ...Qd4 no longer targets an undefended e4-pawn. Black can meet this idea with 5...b5, 5...d6, or 5...Bc5, intending to answer Bxc6 and Nxe5 with ...Qd4, attacking the knight on e5 while simultaneously creating a queen–bishopbattery against f2.

After 5...b5 6.Bb3, Black usually plays 6...Bc5, developing the bishop to a much more active square compared to 6...Be7, which, after 7.0-0, would transpose to theMartinez Variation.

With 5...d6, Black intends to trade White's bishop following 6...b5 7.Bb3 Na5. White can choose to meet this idea with 6.c3, which, after 6...Be7, transposes into the Martinez Variation, or play 6.c4 (Duras Variation), aiming to stop b7–b5 and develop actively with h3, 0-0, Nc3.

Against 5...Bc5, play typically continues 6.c3 b5 7.Bb3 d6 8.0-0 0-0. At this point, White often adopts the more thematic plans 9.Nbd2 or 9.h3; however, the strongest continuation is 9.Bg5. After 9...h6 10.Bh4 g5 White must choose between the safer 11.Bg3 or the sharper 11.Nxg5.

If White wants to play a Ruy Lopez with d2–d3, it is objectively slightly better to first play 5.0-0, wait for Black to play 5...Be7, then play the Martinez (6.d3). This is because in the Anderssen, it is not clear if White has an advantage after 5...Bc5. On the other hand, 5.d3 avoids theOpen Defence.

Wormald Variation: 5.Qe2

[edit]

5.Qe2 (ECO C77), first played in the 1840s, normally continues 5...b5 6.Bb3 Be7 7.c3 followed by 8.d4. Robert Wormald (1834–1876) wrote openings manuals and completedStaunton's last book, analysing the line inChess World, 1867. The line is also known asPaulsen–Alapin Attack, andSchlechter Variation.[61]

Mackenzie Variation: 5.d4

[edit]

The variation 5.d4 (ECO C77), named afterGeorge Henry Mackenzie who employed it on a regular basis, is an old line which, according to modern theory, does not promise White any advantage, though is adopted as an alternative to the main variation 5.0-0. The main line continues with 5...exd4 (5...Nxe4 6.0-0 transposes to theOpen Defence) 6.0-0 (6.e5 Ne4 is harmless) Be7 (6...Nxe4 transposes to the Riga Variation of the Open Defence) which leads to theCentre Attack (ECO C84) of the Closed Defence.

Other lines

[edit]
  • 5.Nc3 is the Tarrasch Variation, also known as the Four Knights Variation. It can also be reached by transposition from theFour Knights Game after 3.Nc3 Nf6 4.Bb4 a6 5.Ba4, although this is rare.
  • 5.Bxc6 is the Bayreuth Variation, also known as the Delayed Exchange Variation or Exchange Variation Deferred. White loses a tempo compared to the standardExchange Variation, but Black can no longer easily play ...f6 or ...Qf6, common moves in that line.

Black's fifth move alternatives

[edit]

Russian Defence: 5.0-0 d6

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8 black bishopg8h8 black rook8
7a7b7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7e7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6 black pawne6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5c5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4 white bishopb4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1f1 white rookg1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Russian Defence: 5...d6

The Russian Defence (ECO C79) is also called the Steinitz Defence Deferred. With the move order 3...a6 4.Ba4 Nf6 5.0-0 d6, Black waits until White castles before playing ...d6. This can enable Black to avoid some lines in theModern Steinitz Defence (4...d6) in which White castles queenside, although the position of the knight on f6 also precludes Black from supporting the centre with ...f7–f6.

Mikhail Chigorin played the Russian Defence in the 1890s, and later it was adopted byAkiba Rubinstein and Alekhine. The last significant use of the Russian Defence was in the 1950s, when it was played by some Russian masters. Today, however, it has purely practical value, as White has found numerous ways to gain an opening advantage by quickly opening lines in the centre, where Black's developmental lag seems to be a significant factor.

Møller Defence: 5.0-0 Bc5

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8g8h8 black rook8
7a7b7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6e6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5c5 black bishopd5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4 white bishopb4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1f1 white rookg1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Møller Defence: 5...Bc5

5...Bc5 is the Møller Defence. The usual continuation is 6.c3 b5, after which White can either play 7.Bb3, transposing to theModern Arkhangelsk Variation, or 7.Bc2. 6...0-0 is also seen, usually continuing 7.d4 Ba7. White also has the options of 7.d3, 7.Bxc6, and 7.Nxe5, aiming tofork Black's knight and bishop after 7...Nxe5 8.d4.

The Møller Defence was already an old line in 1903 whenJørgen Møller (1873–1944) analysed it inTidskrift för Schack.Alexander Alekhine played it with Black in the early portion of his career; despite his advocacy, it never achieved great popularity, and even he eventually came to consider it dubious.

Exchange Variation: 4.Bxc6

[edit]
Main article:Ruy Lopez, Exchange Variation
abcdefgh
8
a8 black rook
c8 black bishop
d8 black queen
e8 black king
f8 black bishop
g8 black knight
h8 black rook
b7 black pawn
c7 black pawn
f7 black pawn
g7 black pawn
h7 black pawn
a6 black pawn
c6 black pawn
e5 black pawn
e4 white pawn
f3 white knight
a2 white pawn
b2 white pawn
c2 white pawn
d2 white pawn
f2 white pawn
g2 white pawn
h2 white pawn
a1 white rook
b1 white knight
c1 white bishop
d1 white queen
e1 white king
h1 white rook
8
77
66
55
44
33
22
11
abcdefgh
Exchange Variation after 4...dxc6. Black hasdoubled pawns, but has thebishop pair.

In the Exchange Variation, 4.Bxc6, (ECO C68–C69) White damages Black'spawn structure, gaining a ready-made long-term plan of playing d4 ...exd4 Qxd4, followed by exchanging all the pieces and winning the pure pawn ending.Max Euwe gave the pure pawn ending in this position (with all pieces except kings removed) as a win for White.[62] Black gains good compensation in the form of the bishop pair, however, and the variation is not considered White's most ambitious, though former world championsEmanuel Lasker andBobby Fischer employed it with success.

After 4.Bxc6, Black almost always responds 4...dxc6. 4...bxc6 is rarely played due to the reply 5.d4 exd4 6.Qxd4 which gives Whitecontrol of the centre. After 4...dxc6, the obvious 5.Nxe5? is weak, since 5...Qd4! 6.Nf3 Qxe4+ 7.Qe2 Qxe2+ 8.Kxe2 leaves White with nocompensation for Black's bishop pair. The most common move is instead 5.0-0, followed by 5.Nc3 and 5.d4.

The flexible 5.0-0 is sometimes called the Barendregt Variation, after the Dutch masterJohan Barendregt who frequently played it and was influential in the development of the theory of the line. Fischer developed it into a serious weapon in the 1960s. Unlike 5.d4, it forces Black to defend the e-pawn, usually with 5...f6, 5...Bg4, 5...Qd6 (the sharpest line, preparing queensidecastling), 5...Qf6, 5...Qe7, or 5...Bd6. Some other moves that have been played are 5...Ne7, 5...Be7, and 5...Be6. The idea behind these three moves is that if White plays 6.Nxe5, Black plays 6...Qd4, forking the knight and the e4-pawn. The move ...Qd4, regaining the pawn at e4, is usually impossible in these variations once White has castled, due to theopen e-file. Notable games with 5.0-0 includeFischer–Portisch,[63] andFischer–Gligorić,[64] both played at the17th Chess Olympiad inHavana 1966.

After 5.Nc3, Black usually plays 5...f6 to defend the e-pawn. A notable game isAdhiban–Nakamura from the2013 FIDE World Cup.[65]

After 5.d4, the usual continuation is 5...exd4 6.Qxd4 Qxd4 7.Nxd4, most often followed by 7...Bd7. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries,Emanuel Lasker had great success with this line, most notably his famous win againstJosé Raúl Capablanca in theSt. Petersburg 1914 chess tournament.[66]

White may also delay the exchange for a move or two: 4.Ba4 Nf6 5.Bxc6, theBayreuth Variation, or 5.0-0 Be7 6.Bxc6, theSteenwijker Variation. At first glance this seems a waste of time, but Black having played ...Nf6 rules out defending the pawn with ...f6, and the bishop already being on e7 means that ...Bd6 would be a loss oftempo. White can also exchange without Black playing 3...a6 at all, but this is uncommon.

Black's fourth move alternatives

[edit]

Modern Steinitz Defence: 4.Ba4 d6

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8 black bishopg8 black knighth8 black rook8
7a7b7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7e7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6 black pawne6f6g6h66
5a5b5c5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4 white bishopb4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white kingf1g1h1 white rook1
abcdefgh
Modern Steinitz Defence: 4...d6

In the Modern Steinitz Defence (also called Neo-Steinitz Defence) (ECO C71–C76), Black interpolates 3...a6 4.Ba4 before playing 4...d6, which was frequently played byAlexander Alekhine,José Raúl Capablanca, andPaul Keres. The ability to break the pin with a timely ...b5 gives Black more flexibility than in the regularSteinitz Defence. Notably, in the regular Steinitz Defence, White can almost always force Black to surrender the stronghold at e5. In the Modern Steinitz Defence, however, Black retains control of thecentre. Most plausible White moves are playable here, including 5.c3, 5.c4, 5.Bxc6, 5.d4, and 5.0-0.

If White plays 5.d4, analogous to the Steinitz Defence, Black can immediately break the pin with 4...b5. After 5.Bb3 Nxd4 6.Nxd4 exd4, the natural 8.Qxd4?, recommended by Alekhine in his tournament book onNew York 1924,[citation needed] is in fact a mistake, as it falls intoNoah's Ark Trap.[67] In the gameSteiner–Capablanca,Budapest 1929, play continued 8...c5 9.Qd5 Be6 10.Qc6+ Bd7 11.Qd5 c4, after which White's bishop is trapped.[68]

The sharp Siesta Variation arises after 5.c3 f5,[69] while a manoeuvring game results from the calmer 5.c3 Bd7 6.d4.

The game is also sharp after 5.Bxc6+ bxc6 6.d4 (C73) or 5.0-0 Bg4 6.h3 h5 (C72).

The older lines starting with 5.c4 and 5.d4 are not regarded as testing for Black, though the latter offers a trickygambit.

There are sixECO classifications for the Modern Steinitz. White's responses 5.d4, 5.Nc3, and 5.c4 are included in C71, while 5.0-0 is C72. The delayed exchange 5.Bxc6+ bxc6 6.d4 is C73. C74–C76 all begin with 5.c3. C74 covers 5...Nf6, but primarily focuses on 5...f5 6.exf5 Bxf5 with 7.d4 or 7.0-0. C75's main continuation is 5...Bd7 6.d4 Nge7, the Rubinstein Variation. C76 is characterised by the Blackkingsidefianchetto 5...Bd7 6.d4 g6.

Norwegian Defence: 4.Ba4 b5 5.Bb3 Na5

[edit]

The Norwegian Variation (also called the Taimanov or Wing Variation) (ECO C70), 3...a6 4.Ba4 b5 5.Bb3 Na5, aims to eliminate White's bishop but is generally considered too time-consuming for Black. The usual continuation is 6.0-0 d6 7.d4 Nxb3, but the speculative sacrifice 6.Bxf7+?! Kxf7 7.Nxe5+ Ke7!, which drives the black king out, has been played. With accurate play, however, Black can avoid any disadvantage while holding onto the extra piece, unless White opts to gain a rook and two pawns for two minor pieces after 8.Nf7!? Kxf7 9.Qh5+ g6 (9...Ke7 10.Qe5+) 10.Qd5+ Kg7 11.Qxa8, with a sharp position but advantage for Black.

In the 1950s,Mark Taimanov played it with some success, though it remained a sideline, as it has to this day. This defence has been known since the 1880s and was reintroduced in 1901 byCarl Schlechter. The Norwegian connection was first introduced bySvein Johannessen who played the line from 1957 and later strengthened whenSimen Agdestein and some other Norwegian players adopted the variation. In 1995Jonathan Tisdall published the article "Ruy Lopez. The Norwegian Variation" inNew in ChessYearbook 37.

Classical Defence Deferred: 4.Ba4 Bc5

[edit]

This line combines 3...a6 with the active move ...Bc5. For a century it was believed that it was safer for Black to place the bishop on e7, but it is much more active on c5. White can gain time by playing c3 and d4 as Black's bishop will have to move, but this does not always seem to be as important as was once thought.[70] White also has the option of 5.0-0, which can transpose to the Graz Defence after 5...b5 6.Bb3, but more common are 5...Nge7 and 5...d6.

Cozio Defence Deferred

[edit]
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8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8 black bishopg8h8 black rook8
7a7b7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7 black knightf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6 black pawnb6c6 black knightd6e6f6g6h66
5a5b5c5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4 white bishopb4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white kingf1g1h1 white rook1
abcdefgh
Cozio Defence Deferred: 4...Nge7

4...Nge7 is the Cozio Defence Deferred. Unlike many other deferred versions of other lines, it is frequently reached by transposition from the standardCozio Defence (3...Nge7).

It has been advocated byLevon Aronian, and in recent years additional elite players, such asFabiano Caruana,Dommaraju Gukesh, andRameshbabu Praggnanandhaa have also begun experimenting with 3...a6 4.Ba4 Nge7. The critical line continues 5.c3 Ng6 6.d4 exd4 7.cxd4 Bb4+ 8.Nc3 d5 9.exd5 Bxc3+ 10.bxc3 Qxd5 11.0-0 0-0, after which White retains thebishop pair, while Black has the betterpawn structure.

Jaenisch Gambit Deferred: 4.Ba4 f5

[edit]

The Jaenisch Gambit Deferred or Jaenisch-Schliemann Gambit Deferred, 3...a6 4.Ba4 f5, is rarely seen, with practically its only top-level appearances being in the 1974 Candidates Final, whenViktor Korchnoi adopted it to ultimately draw the game versusAnatoly Karpov,[71] and byRameshbabu Praggnanandhaa who won againstVidit Gujrathi in the2024 Candidates Tournament.[72] It is considered inferior to the regularJaenisch Gambit since White can respond effectively with 5.d4!, and now both 5...exd4 6.e5 and 5...fxe4 6.Nxe5 Nxe5 7.dxe5 lead to a White advantage.

Other lines

[edit]
  • After 4.Ba4 b5 5.Bb3, alternatives to theNorwegian Defence (5...Na5) include 5...Nf6, attempting to transpose to the main line but allowing White the option of 6.d4; 5...Bb7, the Caro Defence, usually transposing to theArkhangelsk Variation after 5.0-0 Nf6, but also allowing 6.d4; and 5...Bc5, known as the Graz Defence, usually continuing with 5.0-0 or 5.c3, which was analysed by Alois Fink inÖsterreichische Schachzeitung in 1956 and inWiener Schach Nachrichten in 1979, although it did not become popular until the 1990s.
  • 4.Ba4 g6 is the Fianchetto Defence Deferred. Like the Cozio Defence Deferred, it is also often reached by transposition from the standard Fianchetto Defence (3...g6), such as via 4.c3 a6 5.Ba4.
  • 4.Ba4 Be7 usually transposes to the main line after 5.0-0 Nf6.

Berlin Defence: 3...Nf6

[edit]
Main article:Berlin Defence
abcdefgh
8
a8 black rook
c8 black bishop
d8 black queen
e8 black king
f8 black bishop
h8 black rook
a7 black pawn
b7 black pawn
c7 black pawn
d7 black pawn
f7 black pawn
g7 black pawn
h7 black pawn
c6 black knight
f6 black knight
b5 white bishop
e5 black pawn
e4 white pawn
f3 white knight
a2 white pawn
b2 white pawn
c2 white pawn
d2 white pawn
f2 white pawn
g2 white pawn
h2 white pawn
a1 white rook
b1 white knight
c1 white bishop
d1 white queen
e1 white king
h1 white rook
8
77
66
55
44
33
22
11
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Berlin Defence: 3...Nf6

The Berlin Defence, 3...Nf6,[73] has long had a reputation for solidity and drawishness and is commonly referred to as "theBerlin Wall".[74] White usually replies with 4.0-0 or 4.d3.

The line was played in the late 19th century and early 20th century byEmanuel Lasker and others, who typically answered 4.0-0 with 4...d6 in the style of theSteinitz Defence. This approach ultimately fell out of favour, as had the old form of the Steinitz, due to its passivity, and the entire variation became rare.Arthur Bisguier played the Berlin for decades, but always chose the variation 4.0-0 Nxe4. Ever sinceVladimir Kramnik successfully used the line as adrawing weapon four separate times againstGarry Kasparov in their2000 World Chess Championship match, the Berlin has experienced a remarkable renaissance: even players with a dynamic style such asAlexei Shirov,Veselin Topalov,Hikaru Nakamura, and Kasparov himself have tried it, andMagnus Carlsen andViswanathan Anand both used it (Carlsen extensively so) during the2013 World Chess Championship and2014 World Chess Championship.

The Berlin is assignedECO codes C65–C67. Code C65 covers alternatives to 4.0-0, including 4.d3 as well as 4.0-0 Bc5. Code C66 covers 4.0-0 d6, while C67 is 4.0-0 Nxe4.

Main line: 4.0-0

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black kinge8f8 black bishopg8h8 black rook8
7a7 black pawnb7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7e7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6b6c6 black pawnd6e6f6g6h66
5a5b5c5d5e5 white pawnf5 black knightg5h55
4a4b4c4d4e4f4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2e2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1e1f1 white rookg1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
l'Hermet Variation after 8...Kxd8: Berlin endgame

White may safelycastle as Black's third move does not truly threaten to win White's pawn on e4, as if Black captures it, White will always be able to win back the pawn on e5.[75] Following this, Black most often plays either the solid 4...Nxe4 (the Open Variation) or the more combative 4...Bc5 (the Beverwijk Variation).[76]

4...Nxe4 5.d4 Nd6 6.Bxc6 dxc6 7.dxe5 Nf5 8.Qxd8+ Kxd8 (l'Hermet Variation) reaches the starting position of what is called the Berlin endgame. White has a small advantage due to a pawnmajority on thekingside, while Black possesses the bishop pair. It is difficult for White to exploit the structural superiority without opening the game for Black's bishops. In theKasparov–Kramnik World-Championship match, all four of the games in which this line was employed ended in draws.[77][78][79][80] Despite its drawish tendency, theBerlin endgame is considered to be the sternest test of the entire variation beginning with 3...Nf6 and is extensively analysed. The modern consensus is that Black can hold the endgame with accurate play.

Black may avoid the Berlin endgame, most commonly with 5...Be7 (the Rio de Janeiro Variation) or 5...a6 6.Ba4 (transposing to theOpen Defence). White can also avoid the queen trade and endgame with 4.0-0 Nxe4 5.Re1, which is also quite drawish but analysed as slightly better for White than the endgame. The primary continuation is 5...Nd6 6.Nxe5 Be7 7.Bf1 Nxe5 8.Rxe5 0-0 9.d4 Bf6 10.Re1, leading to a position where all of White's pieces are still on the first rank.

Anti-Berlin: 4.d3

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8 black bishopg8h8 black rook8
7a7 black pawnb7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6b6c6 black knightd6e6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5 white bishopc5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3 white pawne3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2e2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white kingf1g1h1 white rook1
abcdefgh
Anti-Berlin system: 4.d3

An important alternative is 4.d3, dubbed the Anti-Berlin, which avoids the notorious Berlin endgame.Wilhelm Steinitz scored many spectacular successes with it during his reign as World Champion.[81] The main replies for Black are 4...d6 and 4...Bc5, the latter being more popular. White's most important continuations after 4...Bc5 are 5.0-0, 5.Bxc6, and 5.c3. An uncommon reply to 4.d3 is 4...Ne7, which tries to set up theMortimer Trap.

Other lines

[edit]
  • 4.Nc3 transposes to theFour Knights Game, Spanish Variation.
  • 4.d4 opens the centre early. It usually continues 4...exd4 5.0-0 (or 5.e5), the Nyholm Attack, or 4...Nxe4, followed by either 5.Qe2, 5.dxe5, or 5.0-0, which transposes to the main line.
  • 4.Qe2 is occasionally seen and defends the pawn on e4 from Black's knight.
  • 4.Bxc6 most often continues 4...dxc6 and 4...bxc6, the latter of which is playable in the Berlin, unlike theExchange Variation in the Morphy Defence. This may transpose into the Anti-Berlin above if White continues with 5.d3, or in the case of 4...bxc6, to the main line with 5.0-0 Nxe4 or 5.d4 Nxe4, but White has other continuations to 4...bxc6, such as 5.Nc3, and Black has other replies to both 5.0-0 and 5.d4.

Black's third move alternatives

[edit]

Jaenisch Gambit: 3...f5

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8 black bishopg8 black knighth8 black rook8
7a7 black pawnb7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7f7g7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6b6c6 black knightd6e6f6g6h66
5a5b5 white bishopc5d5e5 black pawnf5 black pawng5h55
4a4b4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white kingf1g1h1 white rook1
abcdefgh
Jaenisch Gambit: 3...f5

The Jaenisch Gambit, Jaenisch–Schliemann Gambit, or Schliemann Defence (ECO C63), 3...f5,[69] is a sharp line in which Black plays for a kingside attack, frequentlysacrificing one or two pawns. It is not a true gambit since after 4.exf5, 4...e4 forces the knight to retreat, after which 5...Qg5 will regain the pawn as it forks the pawns on f5 and g2 (as well as preventing Qh5+). The variation was originated byCarl Jaenisch, who analysed it in the December 1847 issue ofLe Palamède.[8] Although later named for German lawyerAdolph Schliemann [de] (1817–1872), the line Schliemann actually advocated for in the 1860s was a gambit variation of the Cordel Defence (3...Bc5 4.c3 f5).[82]

The Jaenisch Gambit is considered to be a good practical weapon, but is positionally risky, especially against a strong and prepared opponent. In the 1970sJozef Boey played it in the ICCF correspondence chess world championship final[83][84] and wrote a book about it.Teimour Radjabov is currently the only top player who regularly employs this line, with mixed results.

The most common responses for White to 3...f5 are 4.d3 or 4.Nc3, with play after 4.Nc3 fxe4 5.Nxe4 going 5...d5, with great complications to follow, or 5...Nf6, which generally leads to quieter play.

Dyckhoff Variation: 4.Nc3 fxe4 5.Nxe4 d5

[edit]

5...d5 leads to the most heavily analysed variations of the gambit.[85] Play usually continues with 6.Nxe5 dxe4 7.Nxc6, followed by the aggressive counterattacking moves 7...Qg5 or 7...Qd5.

Classical Variation: 6.Nxe5 dxe4 7.Nxc6 Qg5
[edit]
Classical Variation
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8e8 black kingf8 black bishopg8 black knighth8 black rook8
7a7 black pawnb7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7e7f7g7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6b6c6 white knightd6e6f6g6h66
5a5b5 white bishopc5d5e5f5g5 black queenh55
4a4b4c4d4e4 black pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3g3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1c1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white kingf1g1h1 white rook1
abcdefgh
4.Nc3 fxe4 5.Nxe4 d5 6.Nxe5 dxe4 7.Nxc6 Qg5
abcdefgh
8a8b8c8 black kingd8 black rooke8f8g8h8 black rook8
7a7 black pawnb7 black pawnc7d7e7f7g7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6b6c6 black pawnd6 black bishope6 black bishopf6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5c5d5e5 white knightf5g5 white bishoph55
4a4b4c4 white bishopd4 white pawne4 black pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3g3 white pawnh3 black queen3
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2e2 white queenf2g2h2 white pawn2
1a1b1c1 white kingd1 white rooke1f1g1h1 white rook1
abcdefgh
Main line: 8.Qe2 Nf6 9.f4 Qxf4 10.d4 Qh4+ 11.g3 Qh3 12.Ne5+ c6 13.Bc4 Be6 14.Bg5 0-0-0 15.0-0-0 Bd6

This move threatens both White's bishop on b5 and pawn on g2 with capture. The main continuation is 8.Qe2 Nf6. White then has the options of 9.f4 and thediscovered checks 9.Nxa7+ and 9.Ne5+.

After 9.f4, the main line continues 9...Qxf4 10.d4 and then 10...Qh4+ 11.g3 Qh3 12.Ne5+ c6 13.Bc4 Be6 14.Bg5 0-0-0 15.0-0-0 Bd6, or 10...Qd6.

Retreating with 8.Nd4+ c6 9.Bf1 is also possible, but not as challenging for Black.

Möhring Variation: 7...Qd5
[edit]

This attacks White's bishop while also pressuring White's knight. The usual response is 8.c4, defending the bishop and attacking the queen, followed by 8...Qd6 and then 9.Nxa7+ or 9.Qh5+. After 9.Nxa7+, the usual continuation is 9...Bd7 10.Bxd7+ Qxd7 11.Qh5+ g6 12.Qe5+ Kf7 13.Nb5 c6 14.Qd4. 9.Qh5+ usually continues 9...g6 10.Qe5+ Qxe5 11.Nxe5+ c6 12.Ba4 Bg7 13.d4 exd3.

Other lines
[edit]
  • After 4...fxe4 5.Nxe4 d5 6.Nxe5 dxe4 7.Nxc6, 7...bxc6 usually continues 8.Bxc6+ Bd7. White can then exchange the bishop for Black's rook with 9.Bxa8 Qxa8, leaving White with an extra rook and two pawns in exchange for a knight and bishop, though Black has better development. More common is 9.Qh5+, where 9...g6 10.Qe5+ allows White to win a piece, and 9...Ke7 leaves Black unable to castle and down another pawn after 10.Qe5+ Be6 11.Bxa8 Qxa8 12.Qxc7+.
  • An alternative to 7.Nxc6 is 7.Qh5+, which usually continues 6...g6 7.Nxg6 hxg6 8.Qxh8, and then 8...Qd5 or 8...Be6. White has a rook and two pawns in exchange for two knights, but Black has a lead in development.
  • An alternative to 6.Nxe5 is 6.Ng3, retreating the knight rather than entering the verysharp main line, though it leaves Black with a dominant pair of centre pawns. The usual continuation is 6...Bg4 7.h3 Bxf3 8.Qxf3 and then either 8...Nf6, with the common continuations 9.Nh5 Qd6 10.Nxf6 gxf6 11.Qh5+ Kd7, 9.0-0 Bd6 10.Nh5 e4 11.Nxf6+ Qxf6 12.Qxf6+ gxf6, and 9.d3, or 8...Qd6, with the common continuations 9.0-0 0-0-0, 9.Nf5 Qe6, and 9.Bxc6 Qxc6.
  • Another possible (but rare) retreat is 6.Nc3, which Black typically replies to with 6...Bg4, similarly to the 6.Ng3 line.

Tartakower Variation: 5...Nf6

[edit]

Unlike in the 5...d5 line, White usually responds with 6.Nxf6+ or 6.Qe2; 6.d3 is also an option. 6.Nxf6+ usually continues with 6...Qxf6 7.Qe2 Be7 8.Bxc6+ and then 8...dxc6 or the more modern 8...bxc6. In both cases, White can respond with 9.Nxe5, 9.Qxe5, or 9.d4.

Quiet Variation: 4.d3

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abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8 black bishopg8h8 black rook8
7a7 black pawnb7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7f7g7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6b6c6 black knightd6e6f6 black knightg6h66
5a5b5 white bishopc5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2e2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1f1 white rookg1 white kingh11
abcdefgh
Quiet Variation, main line: 4.d3 fxe4 5.dxe4 Nf6 6.0-0

This move defends the e-pawn while preventing Black from kicking with ...d5, as in the Dyckhoff Variation. The main continuation is 4...fxe4 5.dxe4 Nf6, but 4...Nf6 is also possible. White then usually plays 6.0-0, preventing the pin (if 6.Nc3 is played) or check 6...Bb4. Black then often plays 6...Bc5, where a line that has been played many times is 7.Bxc6 bxc6 8.Nxe5 0-0 9.Nc3 d6, followed by 10.Na4 or 10.Nd3. Another common move is for Black is 6...d6, which simply prevents White from capturing the e-pawn.

Exchange Variation: 4.Bxc6

[edit]

This usually continues 4...dxc6 or 4...bxc6. After 4...dxc6, the main continuation is 5.Nc3 Nf6 6.Qe2 and then 6...Bd6 or 6...fxe4 7.Nxe4 Bg4. 5...fxe4 6.Nxe4 Nf6 is also common and transposes to the same line.

A delayed exchange with 4.Nc3 fxe4 5.Bxc6+ is also possible. Black can reply with either 5...dxc6 or 5...bxc6; after 6.Nxe4, the latter permits Black to play 6...d5,kicking the knight while achieving central domination. 6.Bxc6+ usually transposes to the same line.

Schönemann Attack: 4.d4

[edit]

This usually continues 4...fxe4 5.Nxe5 Nxe5 6.dxe5, running into 6...c6, attacking White's bishop on b5 and threatening 7...Qa5+, winning White's pawn on e5. Another option is 5.Bxc6+, usually continuing 5...dxc6 (or 5...bxc6) 6.Nxe5 Nf6.

Jaenisch Gambit Accepted: 4.exf5

[edit]

This allows Black to play 4...e4. White then has the options of 5.Ng1, 5.Qe2, and 5.Bxc6. Following the retreat 5.Ng1, Black has the options of 5...Qg5, 5...Nf6, and 5...d5.

After 5.Qe2, the usual continuation is 5...Qe7 6.Bxc6 dxc6 (6...bxc6 is also seen).

After 5.Bxc6 dxc6, White can continue with 6.Ne5 or 6.Qe2, in either case allowing 6...Bxf5. After 6.Qe2, 6...Qe7 is also common, transposing to the 5.Qe2 line.

Other lines

[edit]
  • 4.Nc3 fxe4 5.Nxe4 Be7 is the Kostić Defence. It usually continues with either 6.d4 and then 6...exd5 or 6...d5, or 6.0-0 and then 6...d5 or 6...Nf6.
  • 4.Nc3 Nf6 usually continues 5.exf4 e4, followed by either 6.Nh4 or 6.Ng5. Unlike in the 4.exf4 e4 line, h4 and g5 are safe for the knight as Black's queen's line of attack is blocked by the knight on f6. 6.Qe2 and 6.Bxc6 are also possible.
  • 4.Nc3 Nd4 has a similar idea to theBird Defence. It usually continues 5.exf5, 5.Bc4, 5.Ba4, or 5.Nxe5.
  • 4.Nc3 Bb4 is occasionally seen. Like in the 4...Nf6 line, White can safely play 5.exf4.
  • 4.Qe2 typically continues 4...fxe4 and then either 5.Bxc6 dxc6 6.Qxe4 Bd6 or 5.Qxe4 Nf6 6.Qe2.
  • 4.0-0 typically continues 4...fxe4 5.Bxc6 dxc6 6.Nxe5 Qd4.

Classical Defence: 3...Bc5

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8g8 black knighth8 black rook8
7a7 black pawnb7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6b6c6 black knightd6e6f6g6h66
5a5b5 white bishopc5 black bishopd5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white kingf1g1h1 white rook1
abcdefgh
Classical Defence: 3...Bc5

The Classical Defence or Cordel Defence (ECO C64), 3...Bc5,[76] is possibly the oldest defence to the Ruy Lopez, and has been played occasionally by formerworld championBoris Spassky andBoris Gulko. White's most common reply is 4.c3, when Black may choose to play 4...f5, the Cordel Gambit, leading to sharp play, after which 5.d4 is considered the strongest reply. More solid for Black is 4...Nf6, when 5.0-0 0-0 6.d4 Bb6 leads to the Benelux Variation. White's principal alternative to 4.c3 is 4.0-0, when Black can transpose to the Classical Berlin with 4...Nf6 or play 4...Nd4, which is not so bad for Black.

An alternative for White is thefork trick 4.Nxe5. Few games have been played with this line, but there is no clear refutation for Black. The name derives from White's play if Black captures the knight: 4...Nxe5 5.d4.

Fianchetto Defence: 3...g6

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8 black bishopg8 black knighth8 black rook8
7a7 black pawnb7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7f7 black pawng7h7 black pawn7
6a6b6c6 black knightd6e6f6g6 black pawnh66
5a5b5 white bishopc5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white kingf1g1h1 white rook1
abcdefgh
Fianchetto Defence: 3...g6

The Fianchetto Defence, also known as the Smyslov Defence, Barnes Defence, or Pillsbury Defence (part ofECO C60), 3...g6, is a quiet positional system played occasionally byVasily Smyslov andBoris Spassky,[86] becoming popular in the 1980s when it was shown that 4.c3 a6! gives Black a good game.

It was later discovered that 4.d4 exd4 5.Bg5 gives White the advantage, and as such the variation is rarely played. An interestinggambit line 4.d4 exd4 5.c3 has also been recommended byAlexander Khalifman, although some of the resulting positions have yet to be extensively tested.

Cozio Defence: 3...Nge7

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8 black bishopg8h8 black rook8
7a7 black pawnb7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7 black knightf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6b6c6 black knightd6e6f6g6h66
5a5b5 white bishopc5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white kingf1g1h1 white rook1
abcdefgh
Cozio Defence: 3...Nge7

The Cozio Defence (part ofECO C60), 3...Nge7, is distinctly old-fashioned and the least popular of the defences at Black's third move. AlthoughBent Larsen used it occasionally with success, it remains one of the least explored variations of the Ruy Lopez. The Cozio Defence seeks to avoiddoubled pawns on the c-file, as if White captures Black's knight on c6, Black may recapture with Nxc6.

Bird's Defence: 3...Nd4

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8 black bishopg8 black knighth8 black rook8
7a7 black pawnb7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6b6c6d6e6f6g6h66
5a5b5 white bishopc5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4 black knighte4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white kingf1g1h1 white rook1
abcdefgh
Bird's Defence: 3...Nd4

Bird's Defence (ECO C61), 3...Nd4,[76] is an uncommon variation in modern praxis. With careful play White is held to gain an advantage. The best moves are 4.Nxd4 exd4 5.0-0 Bc5 6.d3 c6 7.Ba4 Ne7.

This defence was published in 1843 inPaul Rudolf von Bilguer'sHandbuch des Schachspiels and explored byHenry Bird in the late 19th century. Bird played it as Black at least 25 times, scoring +9−13=3 (nine wins, thirteen losses, threedraws).[87] Bird's Defence was later used a few times in tournament play bySiegbert Tarrasch,Boris Spassky, andAlexander Khalifman. Although it is still sometimes seen as a surprise weapon, no strong master since Bird has adopted it regularly.[88] The world championMagnus Carlsen played it as Black in the2014 Chess Olympiad againstIvan Šarić and lost.[89]

Steinitz Defence: 3...d6

[edit]
abcdefgh
8a8 black rookb8c8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8 black bishopg8 black knighth8 black rook8
7a7 black pawnb7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7e7f7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawn7
6a6b6c6 black knightd6 black pawne6f6g6h66
5a5b5 white bishopc5d5e5 black pawnf5g5h55
4a4b4c4d4e4 white pawnf4g4h44
3a3b3c3d3e3f3 white knightg3h33
2a2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2f2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawn2
1a1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white kingf1g1h1 white rook1
abcdefgh
Steinitz Defence: 3...d6

The Steinitz Defence (also called the Old Steinitz Defence) (ECO C62), 3...d6, is solid but passive and cramped. Although the favourite of the firstworld championWilhelm Steinitz, and often played by world champions and expert defensive playersEmanuel Lasker,José Raúl Capablanca, and occasionally byVasily Smyslov, it largely fell into disuse after World War I, as its inherent passivity spurred a search for more active means of defending the Spanish.

White's most direct approach is 4.d4 immediately challenging Black's pawn on e5, while 4.c3 and 4.0-0 remain viable alternatives. Following 4.d4, Black proceeds with 4...Bd7 which breaks the pin but also defends against White's threat of winning a pawn with 5.Bxc6 and 6.dxe5. Next White plays 5.Nc3 protecting e4 and renewing the threat of winning a pawn to which Black responds with 5...Nf6. After 6.0-0 Be7 7.Re1 Black is forced to concede the centre with 7...exd4, since 7...0-0? leads to theTarrasch Trap.

TheModern Steinitz Defence (3...a6 4.Ba4 d6) offers Black a freer position and is more popular.

Other third moves for Black

[edit]

Even less common third moves for Black include:

  • 3...Bb4 (Alapin Defence)
  • 3...Qf6 (Frankfurt Defence)[90]
  • 3...f6 (Nuremberg Variation)[91]
  • 3...Qe7 (Vinogradov Variation)
  • 3...Na5 (Pollock's Defence)
  • 3...g5 (Brentano Defence)[92]
  • 3...b6 (Rotary Defence or Albany Defence)
  • 3...d5 (Sawyer's Gambit or Spanish Countergambit)
  • 3...Be7 (Lucena Defence)
  • 3...a5 (Bulgarian Variation)

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Latin American Spanish:[ˈlopes]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^abLópez de Segura 1561.
  2. ^Tartakower 1924, p. 28.
  3. ^Karpov 1988.
  4. ^"The Spanish game".Financial Times. 2022-07-28. Retrieved2023-01-14.
  5. ^Murray 1913, p. 782.
  6. ^Ronowirrz, Al (1972-06-15)."Chess: 1490 Manuscript Termed Earliest Text on Openings".The New York Times.ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved2023-12-31.
  7. ^Gossip, George H. D. (1891)."Theory of the chess openings".W. H. Allen & Co (2): 47 – via archive.org.
  8. ^abJaenisch, Carl (December 1847)."Le Début Royal".Le Palamède (in French). Vol. 7. pp. 530–60. Retrieved19 March 2025 – viaGoogle Books.
  9. ^Jaenisch, Carl (1848)."Major Jaenisch On Ruy Lopez' Knight's Game".Chess Player's Chronicle. Vol. 9. pp. 216–21,248–53,274–79. Retrieved22 March 2025 – viaGoogle Books.
  10. ^Jaenisch, Carl (1849)."Major C. F. Jaenisch On The Knight's Game Of Ruy Lopez".Chess Player's Chronicle. Vol. 9. pp. 362–68. Retrieved25 March 2025 – viaGoogle Books.
  11. ^Roeder, Oliver (1 December 2021)."Some Humble Suggestions To Save Chess From Itself".FiveThirtyEight. Retrieved6 February 2023....the grandmasters found themselves again in the Ruy Lopez opening, as chess players often have for centuries
  12. ^Tartakower 1924, p. 28, Die spanische Tortur [The Spanish Torture].
  13. ^Byrne, Robert (30 September 2001)."CHESS; The Spanish Torture Claims Yet Another Hapless Victim".The New York Times: 1. Retrieved17 December 2023.it would seem that Black has solved the opening problems, but the Ruy Lopez is not termedthe Spanish torture for nothing.
  14. ^"Anderssen vs Morphy, match, game 2, Paris, 1858".Chessgames.com. Retrieved31 December 2025.
  15. ^"Anderssen vs Morphy, match, game 4, Paris, 1858".Chessgames.com. Retrieved31 December 2025.
  16. ^Sergeant 1957, pp. 106–08, 110–12.
  17. ^Soltis, Andy; McGormick, Gene (August 1984)."The Morphy Defense"(PDF).Chess Life. pp. 26–27.
  18. ^Staunton 1847, pp. 147, 149.
  19. ^Golombek 1976, pp. 117–18.
  20. ^As of 2016-11-23, Chess-DB.com[1]Archived 2016-11-24 at theWayback Machine reports that 243,757 out of 355,830 games in its database beginning with the Ruy Lopez, continued with 3...a6, i.e. a percentage of approx. 68.5%. Similarly, 365Chess.com[2] reports a 69.3% percentage (100,540 out of 145,061 games) and ChessBase.com[3] (requires free registration) reports a 74.3% percentage (63,183 out of 85,022 games).
  21. ^abTaulbut 1996, p. 21.
  22. ^Evans 2011, p. 173.
  23. ^Nimzowitsch 1947, pp. 116–120, Chapter 7 – The Pin.
  24. ^"Teichmann vs Schlechter, Karlsbad (1911)".Chessgames.com. Retrieved15 June 2019.
  25. ^"José Raúl Capablanca vs Efim Bogoljubow (1922)".Chessgames.com. Retrieved11 December 2018.
  26. ^Barden 1971, pp. 15–16.
  27. ^"Kasparov vs Deep Blue, Man vs Machine, New York (1997)".Chessgames.com. Retrieved1 June 2019.
  28. ^"Chessgames.com: Chess Games Database & Community".Chessgames.com. Retrieved28 November 2018.
  29. ^abFine 1976, pp. 113–115.
  30. ^Lalic 2003, p. 104.
  31. ^"The United States Chess Federation – Kasparov's Curriculum".www.uschess.org. Retrieved2024-01-25.
  32. ^Silman, Jeremy (2004)."Marshall Attack". Archived fromthe original on 2012-02-03. Retrieved2025-03-17.
  33. ^"Capablanca vs Marshall, New York, 1918".Chessgames.com. Retrieved27 December 2021.
  34. ^"The Total Marshall". 15 April 2002. Retrieved2009-06-01.
  35. ^"Frere vs Marshall, New York, 1917".Chessgames.com. Retrieved2009-06-01.
  36. ^"Carl Walbrodt vs Enrique Conill, Enrique Ostolaza, López and Herrera, Havana, 1893".Chessgames.com. Retrieved12 January 2026.
  37. ^Winter, Edward."The Marshall Gambit". Retrieved2009-06-01.
  38. ^"Vladimir Kramnik vs Peter Leko, World Chess Championship, 2004".Chessgames.com. Retrieved10 May 2019.
  39. ^Nandanan, Hari Hara (2 October 2011)."Carlsen stops Ivanchuk, Anand held".The Times of India. Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd. Retrieved29 May 2015.Anand carefully employed the anti-Marshall against Aronian, an acknowledged expert in the Marshall. The Indian waited for things to unfold rather than forcing the pace in his characteristic way but after waiting for sometime on move 21 he deviated from the known track. Though he seemed to have got something out of the opening, the world champion did not have anything special.
  40. ^"Sergey Karjakin vs Magnus Carlsen, World Chess Championship 2016, game 6".Chessgames.com. Retrieved6 February 2025.
  41. ^"CHESSGAMES.COM * Chess game search engine".Chessgames.com. Retrieved28 November 2018.
  42. ^"Viswanathan Anand vs Michael Adams (2013)".Chessgames.com. Retrieved28 November 2018.
  43. ^"Nigel Short vs Anatoly Karpov, Candidates Semifinal, game 6 (1992)".Chessgames.com. Retrieved9 June 2019.
  44. ^"Nigel Short vs Anatoly Karpov, Candidates Semifinal, game 8 (1992)".Chessgames.com. Retrieved9 June 2019.
  45. ^"Paul Morphy vs Henry Cattley, blindfold simul, 1859".Chessgames.com. Retrieved18 June 2025.
  46. ^"Vasily Smyslov vs Samuel Reshevsky, USSR–USA Radio Match, 1945".Chessgames.com. Retrieved6 May 2019.
  47. ^"Morovic-Fernandez vs Yusupov, Tunis Interzonal, 1985".Chessgames.com. Retrieved27 July 2019.
  48. ^"Ljubojevic vs Yusupov, Tilburg Interpolis, 1987".Chessgames.com. Retrieved27 July 2019.
  49. ^"Short vs Yusupov, Belgrade Investbank, 1989".Chessgames.com. Retrieved27 July 2019.
  50. ^"Anatoly Karpov vs Viktor Korchnoi, World Chess Championship, 1978".Chessgames.com. Retrieved6 May 2019.
  51. ^"Garry Kasparov vs Viswanathan Anand, World Chess Championship, 1995".Chessgames.com. Retrieved6 May 2019.
  52. ^"Keres vs Euwe, FIDE World Championship tournament, 1948".Chessgames.com. Retrieved27 July 2019.
  53. ^"Keres vs Reshevsky, FIDE World Championship tournament, 1948".Chessgames.com. Retrieved27 July 2019.
  54. ^"José Raúl Capablanca vs Edward Lasker (1915)".Chessgames.com. Retrieved28 November 2018.
  55. ^"Robert James Fischer vs Petar Trifunovic (1961)".Chessgames.com. Retrieved28 November 2018.
  56. ^Caruana, Fabiano."Caruana's Ruy Lopez: Dark Archangel (Archangel with 7.c3 − 7...d6 8.d4 Bb6 9.dxe5 #3)".chessable.com. Chessable. Retrieved8 March 2025.
  57. ^Caruana, Fabiano."Caruana's Ruy Lopez: Dark Archangel (Archangel with 10.a5 − 11.Be3)".chessable.com. Chessable. Retrieved8 March 2025.
  58. ^Caruana, Fabiano."Caruana's Ruy Lopez: Dark Archangel (Archangel with 10.Na3 − 13.d5 & Sidelines)".chessable.com. Chessable. Retrieved8 March 2025.
  59. ^"Vachier Lagrave vs Caruana, Candidates Tournament (2020)".Chessgames.com. Retrieved8 January 2021.
  60. ^"Grischuk vs Caruana, Candidates Tournament (2020)".Chessgames.com. Retrieved8 January 2021.
  61. ^Hooper & Whyld 1996, p. 451.
  62. ^Müller & Lamprecht 2007, pp. 147–48.
  63. ^"Fischer vs Portisch, 17th Chess Olympiad (1966)".Chessgames.com. Retrieved15 May 2019.
  64. ^"Fischer vs Gligoric, 17th Chess Olympiad (1966)".Chessgames.com. Retrieved15 May 2019.
  65. ^"Adhiban vs Nakamura, FIDE World Cup (2013)".Chessgames.com. Retrieved15 May 2019.
  66. ^"Lasker vs Capablanca, St. Petersburg (1914)".Chessgames.com. Retrieved15 May 2019.
  67. ^Emms 1999, p. 47.
  68. ^"Endre Steiner vs. José Raúl Capablanca, Budapest, 1929". Retrieved27 January 2026.
  69. ^abTaulbut 1996, p. 113.
  70. ^MCO-14, p. 54.
  71. ^"Anatoly Karpov vs Viktor Korchnoi, Candidates Final, 1974".Chessgames.com. Retrieved6 May 2019.
  72. ^"Vidit Santosh Gujrathi vs Rameshbabu Praggnanandhaa, Candidates Round 3, 2024".Chessgames.com. Retrieved6 April 2024.
  73. ^Taulbut 1996, pp. 6, 131.
  74. ^Emmett, Ryan (2008-08-09)."The Berlin Wall Grows Higher In Sochi".Chess.com. Archived fromthe original on 2016-09-21. Retrieved2009-03-22.
  75. ^Seirawan 2003, p. 52.
  76. ^abcTaulbut 1996, p. 131.
  77. ^"Garry Kasparov vs Vladimir Kramnik, World Chess Championship 2000, game 1".Chessgames.com. Retrieved10 May 2019.
  78. ^"Garry Kasparov vs Vladimir Kramnik, World Chess Championship 2000, game 3".Chessgames.com. Retrieved10 May 2019.
  79. ^"Garry Kasparov vs Vladimir Kramnik, World Chess Championship 2000, game 9".Chessgames.com. Retrieved10 May 2019.
  80. ^"Garry Kasparov vs Vladimir Kramnik, World Chess Championship 2000, game 13".Chessgames.com. Retrieved10 May 2019.
  81. ^Horowitz & Reinfeld 1954, p. 59. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHorowitzReinfeld1954 (help)
  82. ^Schliemann, Adolph (1867)."Zur spanischen Partie" [On the Spanish Game].Deutsche Schachzeitung (in German). Vol. 22. pp. 133–35 – viaGoogle Books.
  83. ^"ICCF World Championship 07 Final".ICCF. Retrieved24 March 2025.
  84. ^"ICCF World Championship 10 Final".ICCF. Retrieved24 March 2025.
  85. ^Emms 1999.
  86. ^Taulbut 1996, p. 138.
  87. ^Bird Defence games played by Bird.ChessGames.com. Retrieved on 2009-01-29.
  88. ^Shaw 2003, p. 36.
  89. ^"Ivan Saric vs Magnus Carlsen (2014)".Chessgames.com. Retrieved28 November 2018.
  90. ^Barden 1971, p. 154.
  91. ^Hooper & Whyld 1996, p. 276.
  92. ^Brentano 1900, pp. 97–103.

Bibliography

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Further reading

[edit]

External links

[edit]
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