| Russian conquest of Siberia | |||||||||
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 Yermak's Conquest of Siberia, a painting byVasily Surikov | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
 Tsardom of Russia (before 1721) Russian Empire (after 1721) Don CossacksAlliedIndigenous Siberians | Khanate of Sibir (until 1598) Daurs Yakuts Koryaks Chukchis Buryats Jaxa  Qing Empire(1652–1689) | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
.svg) Yermak Timofeyevich †Pyotr BeketovVladimir AtlasovAndrey VoyeykovIvan MoskvitinYerofey KhabarovVassili PoyarkovDmitry Pavlutsky † | Kuchum Khan Tygyn Darkhan (POW) Daur prince Guigudar Nicefor Czernichowski | ||||||||
TheRussian conquest of Siberia took place during 1581–1778, when theKhanate of Sibir became a loose political structure ofvassalages that were being undermined by the activities of Russian explorers. Although outnumbered, the Russians pressured the various family-based tribes into changing their loyalties and establishing distant forts from which they conducted raids. It is traditionally considered thatYermak Timofeyevich's campaign against the Siberian Khanate began in 1581. The annexation ofSiberia and theFar East to Russia was resisted by local residents and took place against the backdrop of fierce battles between theindigenous peoples of Siberia and the RussianCossacks, who often committed atrocities against indigenous Siberians.[1][better source needed] The conquest of the region was a spontaneous event organized by a group of adventurers; it is one of the earlyEuropean colonial campaigns.[2]
TheRussian conquest of Siberia began in July 1581 when some 540Cossacks under Yermak Timofeyevich invaded the territory of theVoguls, subjects toKuchum Khan, ruler of the Sibir Khanate. They were accompanied by some Lithuanian and German mercenaries and prisoners of war. Throughout 1581, this force traversed the territory known asYugra and subdued Vogul andOstyaks towns. At this time, they also captured a tax collector of Kuchum Khan.
Following a series ofTatar raids in retaliation against the Russian advance, Yermak's forces prepared for a campaign to takeQashliq, the Siberian capital. The force embarked in May 1582. After a three-day battle on the banks of theIrtysh River, Yermak was victorious against a combined force ofKuchum Khan and six allied Tatar princes. On 29 June, the Cossack forces were attacked by the Tatars but again repelled them.
Throughout September 1582, the Khan gathered his forces for a defense of Qashliq. A horde ofSiberian Tatars, Voguls, and Ostyaks massed at Mount Chyuvashto defend against invading Cossacks. On 1 October, a Cossack attempt to storm the Tatar fort at Mount Chyuvash was held off. On 23 October, the Cossacks attempted to storm the Tatar fort at Mount Chyuvash for a fourth time when the Tatars counterattacked. More than a hundred Cossacks were killed, but their gunfire forced a Tatar retreat and allowed the capture of two Tatar cannons. The forces of the Khan retreated, and Yermak entered Qashliq on 26 October.
Kuchum Khan retreated into thesteppes and over the next few years regrouped his forces. He suddenly attacked Yermak on 6 August 1584 in the dead of night and defeated most of his army. The details are disputed with Russian sources claiming Yermak was wounded and tried to escape by swimming across the Wagay River which is a tributary of the Irtysh River, but drowned under the weight of his ownchain mail. The remains of Yermak's forces under the command of Mescheryak retreated from Qashliq, destroying the city as they left. In 1586, the Russians returned, and after subduing theKhanty andMansi people through the use of their artillery they established a fortress atTyumen close to the ruins of Qashliq. The Tatar tribes that were submissive to Kuchum Khan suffered from several attacks by the Russians between 1584 and 1595; however, Kuchum Khan would not be caught. Finally, in August 1598, Kuchum Khan was defeated at theBattle of Irmen near theOb River. In the course of the fight, the Siberian royal family was captured by the Russians. However, Kuchum Khan escaped yet again. The Russians took the family members of Kuchum Khan to Moscow and there they remained as hostages. The descendants of the khan's family became known as thePrinces Sibirsky and the family is known to have survived until at least the late 19th century.
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Despite his personal escape, the capture of his family ended the political and military activities of Kuchum Khan and he retreated to the territories of theNogai Horde in southern Siberia. He had been in contact with the tsar and had requested that a small region on the banks of the Irtysh River would be granted as his dominion. This was rejected by the tsar who proposed to Küçüm Khan that he come to Moscow and "comfort himself" in the service of the tsar. However, the old khan did not want to suffer from such contempt and preferred staying in his own lands to "comforting himself" in Moscow. Kuchum Khan then went toBukhara and as an old man became blind, dying in exile with distant relatives sometime around 1605.[citation needed]
In order to subjugate the natives and collectyasak (fur tribute), a series of winter outposts (zimovie) and forts (ostrogs) were built at the confluences of major rivers and streams and important portages. The first among these wereTyumen andTobolsk—the former built in 1586 by Vasilii Sukin and Ivan Miasnoi, and the latter the following year by Danilo Chulkov.[3] Tobolsk would become the nerve center of the conquest.[4] To the northBeryozovo (1593) andMangazeya (1600–1601) were built to bring theNenets under tribute, while to the eastSurgut (1594) andTara (1594) were established to protect Tobolsk and subdue the ruler of theNarym Ostiaks. Of these, Mangazeya was the most prominent, becoming a base for further exploration eastward.[5]
Advancing up the Ob and its tributaries, the ostrogs ofKetsk (1602) andTomsk (1604) were built. Ketsksluzhilye liudi ("servicemen") reached theYenisei in 1605, descending it to theSym; two years later Mangazeyanpromyshlenniks andtraders descended theTurukhan to its confluence with the Yenisei, where they established thezimovieTurukhansk. By 1610, men from Turukhansk had reached the mouth of the Yenisei and ascended it as far as the Sym, where they met rival tribute collectors from Ketsk. To ensure subjugation of the natives, the ostrogs ofYeniseysk (1619) andKrasnoyarsk (1628) were established.[5]
Following the khan's death and the dissolution of any organised Siberian resistance, the Russians advanced first towardsLake Baikal and then theSea of Okhotsk and theAmur River. However, when they first reached the Chinese border they encountered people that were equipped with artillery pieces and here they halted.
The Russians reached thePacific Ocean in 1639.[6] After the conquest of theSiberian Khanate (1598), the whole ofNorth Asia – an area much larger than the old khanate – became known as Siberia and, by 1640, the eastern borders of Russia had expanded more than several million square kilometres. In a sense, the khanate lived on in the subsidiary title "Tsar of Siberia" which became part of the full imperial style of the Russianautocrats.
The conquest of Siberia also resulted in the spread of diseases. HistorianJohn F. Richards wrote: "... it is doubtful that the total early modern Siberian population exceeded 300,000 persons. ... Newdiseases weakened and demoralized theindigenous peoples of Siberia. The worst of these wassmallpox "because of its swift spread, the high death rates, and the permanent disfigurement of survivors." ... In the 1650s, it moved east of the Yenisey, where it carried away up to 80 percent of the Tungus and Yakut populations. In the 1690s, smallpox epidemics reduced Yukagir numbers by an estimated 44 percent. The disease moved rapidly from group to group across Siberia."[7]
When the Cossacks' entreaties were rejected, they chose to respond with force. Under the leadership ofVasilii Poyarkov in 1645 andYerofei Khabarov in 1650 many people, including members of theDaur tribe, were killed by the Cossacks. 8,000 out of a previous population of 20,000 inKamchatka remained after the first half century of the Russian conquest.[9] The Daurs initially deserted their villages fearing the reported cruelty of the Russians the first time Khabarov came.[10] The second time he came, the Daurs fought back against the Russians, but were slaughtered.[11] In the 17th century, indigenous peoples of theAmur region were attacked by Russians who came to be known as "red-beards".[12]
In the 1640s, theYakuts were subjected to violent expeditions during the Russian advance into the land near theLena River, and on Kamchatka in the 1690s theKoryaks,Kamchadals, andChukchi were also subjected to this by the Russians according to Western historian Stephen Shenfield.[13] When the Russians did not obtain the demanded amount ofyasak from the natives, the governor ofYakutsk, Piotr Golovin, who was a Cossack, used meat hooks to hang the native men. In the Lena basin, 70% of the Yakut population declined within 40 years, native women were raped and, along with children, were often enslaved in order to force the natives to pay the yasak.[10][better source needed]
According to John F. Richards:
Smallpox first reached western Siberia in 1630. In the 1650s, it moved east of the Yenisey, where it carried away up to 80 percent of the Tungus and Yakut populations. In the 1690s,smallpox epidemics reduced Yukagir numbers by an estimated 44 percent. The disease moved rapidly from group to group across Siberia. Death rates in epidemics reached 50 percent of the population. The scourge returned at twenty- to thirty-year intervals, with dreadful results among the young.[7]
In Kamchatka, the Russians crushed theItelmen uprisings against their rule in 1706, 1731, and 1741. The first time, the Itelmens were armed with stone weapons and were badly unprepared and equipped but they used gunpowder weapons the second time. The Russians faced tougher resistance when from 1745 to 1756 they tried to subjugate the gun and bow equipped Koryaks until their victory. The Russian Cossacks also faced fierce resistance and were forced to give up trying to wipe out the Chukchi in 1729, 1730–1731, and 1744–1747.[14] After the Russian defeat in 1729 at Chukchi hands, the Russian commander MajorPavlutskiy was responsible for the Russian war against the Chukchi and the mass slaughters and enslavement of Chukchi women and children in 1730–1731, but his cruelty only made the Chukchis fight more fiercely.[15] Cleansing of the Chukchis and Koryaks was ordered byEmpress Elizabeth in 1742 to totally expel them from their native lands and erase their culture through war. The command was that the natives be "totally extirpated" with Pavlutskiy leading again in this war from 1744 to 1747 in which he led the Cossacks "with the help of Almighty God and to the good fortune of Her Imperial Highness", to slaughter the Chukchi men and enslave their women and children as booty. However the Chukchi ended this campaign and forced them to give up by decapitating and killing Pavlutskiy.[16][17]
The Russians were also launching wars and slaughters against the Koryaks in 1744 and 1753–1754. After the Russians tried to force the nativesto convert to Christianity, the different native peoples like the Koryaks, Chukchis, Itelmens, andYukaghirs all united to drive the Russians out of their land in the 1740s, culminating in the assault on Nizhnekamchatsk fort in 1746.[18] Kamchatka today is European in demographics and culture with only 5% of it being native, around 10,000 from a previous number of 150,000,[citation needed] due toinfectious diseases such assmallpox and mass slaughters by the Cossacks after its annexation in 1697 of the Itelmens and Koryaks throughout the first decades of Russian rule. The killings by the Russian Cossacks devastated the native peoples of Kamchatka.[19] In addition to committing massacres the Cossacks also devastated the wildlife by slaughtering massive numbers of animals for fur.[20] 90% of theKamchadals and half of theVogules were killed from the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries and the rapid slaughter of the indigenous population led to entire ethnic groups being entirely wiped out, with around 12 exterminated groups which could be named byNikolai Yadrintsev as of 1882. Much of the slaughter was brought on by theSiberian fur trade.[21]
The oblastniki in the 19th century among the Russians in Siberia acknowledged that the natives were subjected to immense violent exploitation, and claimed that they would rectify the situation with their proposed regionalist policies.[22]
TheAleuts in theAleutians were subjected to genocide and slavery by the Russian fur traders for the first 20 years of Russian rule, with the Aleut women and children captured by the Russians and Aleut men slaughtered.[23]
The Slavic Russians outnumber all of the native peoples in Siberia and its cities except in the Republics ofTuva andSakha, with the Slavic Russians making up the majority in theBuryat andAltai Republics, outnumbering theBuriat, andAltai natives. The Buryats make up only 33.5% of their own Republic, the Altai 37% and the Chukchi only 28%; theEvenk,Khanty,Mansi, andNenets are outnumbered by non-natives by 90% of the population. The natives were targeted by the tsars and Soviet policies to change their way of life, and ethnic Russians were given the natives'reindeer herds and wild game which were confiscated by the tsars and Soviets. The reindeer herds have been mismanaged to the point of extinction.[24]
TheAinu have emphasized that they were the natives of theKuril Islands and that the Japanese and Russians were both invaders.[25]
The core ideological justification for Russian expansion into Siberia stemmed from the interpretation that the legal incorporation of the Khanate of Sibir into the Russian realm gave Russia legal sovereignty over the entirety of the territory stretching from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean to the east. The actual boundaries of Siberia thus became very vaguely defined and open to interpretation; effectively, Russian dominion over the land ended only whenever Russia's claims to land conflicted with those of centralised states capable of opposing Russian expansion and consistently asserting their own sovereignty over a given territory, such as China and Mongolia. A second ideological pillar justifying Russian colonialism was the spread ofEastern Orthodox Christianity, although this pretext originated largely from explorers and settlers themselves as an ad hoc justification rather than being put forward by theRussian Orthodox Church itself.[26]
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