Runes are theletters in a set of relatedalphabets, known asrunic rows,runic alphabets orfutharks (also, seefuthark vsrunic alphabet), native to theGermanic peoples of the1st millennium and beyond. Runes were used to writeGermanic languages (with some exceptions) before they adopted theLatin alphabet, and for specialised purposes thereafter. In addition to representing a sound value (aphoneme), runes can be used to represent the concepts after which they are named (ideographs). Scholars refer to instances of the latter asBegriffsrunen ('concept runes'). The Scandinavian variants are also known asfuþark, orfuthark; this name is derived from the first six letters of the script, ⟨ᚠ⟩, ⟨ᚢ⟩, ⟨ᚦ⟩, ⟨ᚨ⟩/⟨ᚬ⟩, ⟨ᚱ⟩, and ⟨ᚲ⟩/⟨ᚴ⟩, corresponding to the Latin letters ⟨f⟩, ⟨u⟩, ⟨þ⟩/⟨th⟩, ⟨a⟩, ⟨r⟩, and ⟨k⟩. TheAnglo-Saxon variant is known asfuthorc, orfuþorc, due to changes inOld English of the sounds represented by the fourth letter, ⟨ᚨ⟩/⟨ᚩ⟩.
The earliest secure runic inscriptions date from around AD 150, with a possible earlier inscription dating to AD 50 andTacitus's possible description of rune use from around AD 98. TheSvingerud Runestone dates from between AD 1 and 250. Runes were generally replaced by theLatin alphabet as the cultures that had used runes underwentChristianisation, by approximately AD 700 in central Europe and 1100 innorthern Europe. However, the use of runes persisted for specialized purposes beyond this period. Up until the early 20th century, runes were still used in ruralSweden for decorative purposes inDalarna and onrunic calendars.
The exact development of the early runic alphabet remains unclear but the script ultimately stems from thePhoenician alphabet. Early runes may have developed from theRaetic,Venetic,Etruscan, orOld Latin as candidates. At the time, all of these scripts had the same angular letter shapes suited forepigraphy, which would become characteristic of the runes and related scripts in the region.
The process of transmission of the script is unknown. The oldest clear inscriptions are found in Denmark and northern Germany. A "West Germanic hypothesis" suggests transmission viaElbe Germanic groups, while a "Gothic hypothesis" presumes transmission via East Germanicexpansion. Runes continue to be used in a wide variety of ways in modern popular culture.
The inscription on theEinang stone (AD 350–400), reading[Ek go]ðagastiz runo faihido ("[I, Go]dguest painted/wrote this runic inscription"),[3] is the earliest Germanic epigraphic attestation of the term.[4]
The name stems from aProto-Germanic formreconstructed as*rūnō, which may be translated as 'secret, mystery; secret conversation; rune'. It is the source ofGothicrūna (𐍂𐌿𐌽𐌰, 'secret, mystery, counsel'),Old Englishrún ('whisper, mystery, secret, rune'),Old Saxonrūna ('secret counsel, confidential talk'),Middle Dutchrūne ('id'),Old High Germanrūna ('secret, mystery'), andOld Norserún ('secret, mystery, rune').[5][6] The earliest Germanic epigraphic attestation is thePrimitive Norserūnō (accusative singular), found on theEinang stone (AD 350–400) and theNoleby stone (AD 450).[4]
The term is related toProto-Celtic*rūna ('secret, magic'), which is attested inOld Irishrún ('mystery, secret'),Middle Welshrin ('mystery, charm'),Middle Bretonrin ('secret wisdom'), and possibly in the ancientGaulishCobrunus (<*com-rūnos 'confident'; cf. Middle Welshcyfrin, Middle Bretonqueffrin,Middle Irishcomrún 'shared secret, confidence') andSacruna (<*sacro-runa 'sacred secret'), as well as inLeponticRunatis (< *runo-ātis 'belonging to the secret'). However, it is difficult to tell whether they arecognates (linguistic siblings from a common origin), or if the Proto-Germanic form reflects an early borrowing from Celtic.[7][8] Various connections have been proposed with other Indo-European terms (for example:Sanskritráutiरौति 'roar',Latinrūmor 'noise, rumor';Ancient Greekeréōἐρέω 'ask' andereunáōἐρευνάω 'investigate'),[9] although linguistRanko Matasović finds them difficult to justify for semantic or linguistic reasons.[7] Because of this, some scholars have speculated that the Germanic and Celtic words may have been a shared religious term borrowed from an unknown non-Indo-European language.[4][7]
In early Germanic, a rune could also be referred to as*rūna-stabaz, acompound of*rūnō and*stabaz ('staff; letter'). It is attested in Old Norserúna-stafr, Old Englishrún-stæf, and Old High Germanrūn-stab.[10] Other Germanic terms derived from*rūnō include*runōn ('counsellor'),*rūnjan and*ga-rūnjan ('secret, mystery'),*raunō ('trial, inquiry, experiment'),*hugi-rūnō ('secret of the mind, magical rune'), and*halja-rūnō ('witch, sorceress'; literally '[possessor of the]Hel-secret').[11] It is also often part of personal names, including GothicRunilo (𐍂𐌿𐌽𐌹𐌻𐍉),FrankishRúnfrid, Old NorseAlfrún,Dagrún,Guðrún,Sigrún,Ǫlrún, Old EnglishÆlfrún, andLombardicGoderūna.[9]
TheFinnish wordruno, meaning 'poem', is an early borrowing from Proto-Germanic,[12] and the source of the term for rune,riimukirjain, meaning 'scratched letter'.[13] The root may also be found in theBaltic languages, whereLithuanianrunoti means both 'to cut (with a knife)' and 'to speak'.[14]
The Old English formrún survived into theearly modern period asroun, which is now obsolete. The modern Englishrune is a later formation that is partly derived fromLate Latinruna, Old Norserún, andDanishrune.[6]
The runes were in use among theGermanic peoples from the 1st or 2nd century AD.[a] This period corresponds to the lateCommon Germanic stage linguistically, with a continuum of dialects not yet clearly separated into the three branches of later centuries:North Germanic,West Germanic, andEast Germanic.
No distinction is made in surviving runic inscriptions between long and short vowels, although such a distinction was certainly present phonologically in the spoken languages of the time. Similarly, there are no signs forlabiovelars in the Elder Futhark (such signs were introduced in both theAnglo-Saxon futhorc and theGothic alphabet as variants ofp; seepeorð.)
The formation of the Elder Futhark was complete by the early 5th century, with theKylver Stone being the first evidence of thefuthark ordering as well as of thep rune.
Specifically, theRhaetic alphabet ofBolzano is often advanced as a candidate for the origin of the runes, with only five Elder Futhark runes (ᛖe,ᛇï,ᛃj,ᛜŋ,ᛈp) having no counterpart in the Bolzano alphabet.[16] Scandinavian scholars tend to favor derivation from theLatin alphabet itself over Rhaetic candidates.[17][18][19] A "North Etruscan" thesis is supported by the inscription on theNegau helmet B dating to the 2nd century BC.[20] This is in a northern Etruscan alphabet but features a Germanic name,Harigast.Giuliano andLarissa Bonfante suggest that runes derived from some North Italic alphabet, specificallyVenetic: But sinceRomans conqueredVeneto after 200 BC, and then theLatin alphabet became prominent andVenetic culture diminished in importance,Germanic people could have adopted the Venetic alphabet within the 3rd century BC or even earlier.[21]
The angular shapes of the runes are shared with most contemporary alphabets of the period that were used for carving in wood or stone. There are nohorizontal strokes: when carving a message on a flat staff or stick, it would be along the grain, thus both less legible and more likely to split the wood.[22] This characteristic is also shared by other alphabets, such as the early form of theLatin alphabet used for theDuenos inscription, but it is not universal, especially among early runic inscriptions, which frequently have variant rune shapes, including horizontal strokes. Runic manuscripts (that iswritten rather than carved runes, such asCodex Runicus) also show horizontal strokes.
The "West Germanic hypothesis" speculates on an introduction byWest Germanic tribes. This hypothesis is based on claiming that the earliest inscriptions of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, found in bogs and graves aroundJutland (theVimose inscriptions), exhibit word endings that, being interpreted byScandinavian scholars to beProto-Norse, are considered unresolved and long having been the subject of discussion.[b]In the early Runic period, differences between Germanic languages are generally presumed to be small. Another theory presumes aNorthwest Germanic unity preceding the emergence of Proto-Norse proper from roughly the 5th century.[c][d] An alternative suggestion explaining the impossibility of classifying the earliest inscriptions as either North or West Germanic is forwarded by È. A. Makaev, who presumes a "special runickoine", an early "literary Germanic" employed by the entire Late Common Germanic linguistic community after the separation of Gothic (2nd to 5th centuries), while the spoken dialects may already have been more diverse.[28]
With the potential exception of theMeldorf fibula, a possible runic inscription found inSchleswig-Holstein dating to around 50 AD, the earliest reference to runes (and runic divination) may occur in Roman Senator Tacitus's ethnographicGermania.[29] Dating from around 98 CE, Tacitus describes the Germanic peoples as utilizing a divination practice involving rune-like inscriptions:
For divination and casting lots they have the highest possible regard. Their procedure for casting lots is uniform: They break off the branch of a fruit tree and slice into strips; they mark these by certain signs and throw them, as random chance will have it, on to a white cloth. Then a state priest, if the consultation is a public one, or the father of the family, if it is private, prays to the gods and, gazing to the heavens, picks up three separate strips and reads their meaning from the marks scored on them. If the lots forbid an enterprise, there can be no further consultation about it that day; if they allow it, further confirmation by divination is required.[30]
As Victoria Symons summarizes, "If the inscriptions made on the lots that Tacitus refers to are understood to be letters, rather than other kinds of notations or symbols, then they would necessarily have been runes, since no other writing system was available to Germanic tribes at this time."[29]
Runic inscriptions from the 400-year period 150–550 AD are described as "Period I". These inscriptions are generally inElder Futhark, but the set of letter shapes andbindrunes employed is far from standardized. Notably thej,s, andŋ runes undergo considerable modifications, while others, such asp andï, remain unattested altogether prior to the first full futhark row on theKylver Stone (c. 400 AD).
Artifacts such as spear heads or shield mounts have been found that bear runic marking that may be dated to 200 AD, as evidenced by artifacts found across northern Europe inSchleswig (North Germany),Funen,Zealand,Jutland (Denmark), andScania (Sweden). Earlier—but less reliable—artifacts have been found inMeldorf,Süderdithmarschen [de], in northern Germany; these include brooches and combs found in graves, most notably theMeldorf fibula, and are supposed to have the earliest markings resembling runic inscriptions.
The stanza 157 ofHávamál attribute to runes the power to bring that which is dead back to life. In this stanza,Odin recounts a spell:
Þat kann ek it tolfta, ef ek sé á tré uppi váfa virgilná,: svá ek ríst ok í rúnum fák, at sá gengr gumi ok mælir við mik.[31]
I know a twelfth one if I see up in a tree, a dangling corpse in a noose, I can so carve and colour the runes, that the man walks and talks with me.[32]
The earliest runic inscriptions found on artifacts give the name of either the craftsman or the proprietor, or sometimes, remain a linguistic mystery. Due to this, it is possible that the early runes were not used so much as a simple writing system, but rather asmagical signs to be used for charms. Although some say the runes were used fordivination, there is no direct evidence to suggest they were ever used in this way. The namerune itself, taken to mean "secret, something hidden", seems to indicate that knowledge of the runes was originally considered esoteric, or restricted to an elite.[citation needed] The 6th-centuryBjörketorp Runestone warns inProto-Norse using the wordrune in both senses:
I, master of the runes(?) conceal here runes of power. Incessantly (plagued by) maleficence, (doomed to) insidious death (is) he who breaks this (monument). I prophesy destruction / prophecy of destruction.[33]
The same curse and use of the word, rune, is also found on theStentoften Runestone. There also are some inscriptions suggesting a medieval belief in the magical significance of runes, such as theFranks Casket (AD 700) panel.
Charm words, such asauja,laþu,laukaʀ, and most commonly,alu,[34] appear on a number ofMigration period Elder Futhark inscriptions as well as variants and abbreviations of them. Much speculation and study has been produced on the potential meaning of these inscriptions. Rhyming groups appear on some early bracteates that also may be magical in purpose, such assalusalu andluwatuwa. Further, an inscription on theGummarp Runestone (500–700 AD) gives a cryptic inscription describing the use of three runic letters followed by the Elder Futhark f-rune written three times in succession.[35]
Nevertheless, it has proven difficult to find unambiguous traces of runic "oracles": althoughNorse literature is full of references to runes, it nowhere contains specific instructions on divination. There are at least three sources on divination with rather vague descriptions that may, or may not, refer to runes:Tacitus's 1st-centuryGermania,Snorri Sturluson's 13th-centuryYnglinga saga, andRimbert's 9th-centuryVita Ansgari.
The first source, Tacitus'sGermania,[36] describes "signs" chosen in groups of three and cut from "a nut-bearing tree", although the runes do not seem to have been in use at the time of Tacitus' writings. A second source is theYnglinga saga, whereGranmar, the king ofSödermanland, goes toUppsala for theblót. There, the "chips" fell in a way that said that he would not live long (Féll honum þá svo spánn sem hann mundi eigi lengi lifa). These "chips", however, are easily explainable as ablótspánn (sacrificial chip), which was "marked, possibly with sacrificial blood, shaken, and thrown down like dice, and their positive or negative significance then decided."[37][page needed]
The third source is Rimbert'sVita Ansgari, where there are three accounts of what some believe to be the use of runes for divination, but Rimbert calls it "drawing lots". One of these accounts is the description of how a renegade Swedish king,Anund Uppsale, first brings a Danish fleet toBirka, but then changes his mind and asks the Danes to "draw lots". According to the story, this "drawing of lots" was quite informative, telling them that attackingBirka would bring bad luck and that they should attack a Slavic town instead. The tool in the "drawing of lots", however, is easily explainable as ahlautlein (lot-twig), which according to Foote and Wilson[38] would be used in the same manner as ablótspánn.
The lack of extensive knowledge on historical use of the runes has not stopped modern authors from extrapolating entire systems of divination from what few specifics exist, usually loosely based on the reconstructed names of the runes and additional outside influence.
Codex Runicus, avellum manuscript from approximately 1300 AD containing one of the oldest and best preserved texts of theScanian Law, is written entirely in runes.
AsProto-Germanic evolved into its later language groups, the words assigned to the runes and the sounds represented by the runes themselves began to diverge somewhat and each culture would create new runes, rename or rearrange its rune names slightly, or stop using obsolete runes completely, to accommodate these changes. Thus, the Anglo-Saxon futhorc has several runes peculiar to itself to representdiphthongs unique to (or at least prevalent in) Old English.
Some later runic finds are on monuments (runestones), which often contain solemn inscriptions about people who died or performed great deeds. For a long time it was presumed that this kind of grand inscription was the primary use of runes, and that their use was associated with a certain societal class of rune carvers.
In the mid-1950s, however, approximately 670 inscriptions, known as theBryggen inscriptions, were found inBergen.[39] These inscriptions were made on wood and bone, often in the shape of sticks of various sizes, and contained information of an everyday nature—ranging from name tags, prayers (often inLatin), personal messages, business letters, and expressions of affection, to bawdy phrases of a profane and sometimes even of a vulgar nature. Following this find, it is nowadays commonly presumed that, at least in late use, Runic was a widespread and common writing system.
17th-century clog almanac collected by SirHans Sloane, now in the collection of the British Museum
In the later Middle Ages, runes also were used in theclog almanacs (sometimes calledRunic staff,Prim, orScandinavian calendar) of Sweden andEstonia. The authenticity of some monuments bearing Runic inscriptions found in Northern America is disputed; most of them have been dated to modern times.
Þat er þá reynt, er þú at rúnum spyrr inum reginkunnum, þeim er gerðu ginnregin ok fáði fimbulþulr, þá hefir hann bazt, ef hann þegir.[31]
That is now proved, what you asked of the runes, of the potent famous ones, which the great gods made, and the mighty sage stained, that it is best for him if he stays silent.[42]
The poemHávamál explains that the originator of the runes was the major deity,Odin. Stanza 138 describes how Odin received the runes through self-sacrifice:
Veit ek at ek hekk vindga meiði a netr allar nío, geiri vndaþr ok gefinn Oðni, sialfr sialfom mer, a þeim meiþi, er mangi veit, hvers hann af rótom renn.
I know that I hung on a windy tree nine long nights, wounded with a spear, dedicated to Odin, myself to myself, on that tree of which no man knows from where its roots run.[43]
In stanza 139, Odin continues:
Við hleifi mik seldo ne viþ hornigi, nysta ek niþr, nam ek vp rvnar, opandi nam, fell ek aptr þaðan.
No bread did they give me nor adrink from a horn, downwards I peered; I took up the runes, screaming I took them, then I fell back from there.[43]
In the Poetic Edda poemRígsþula another origin is related of how the runic alphabet became known to humans. The poem relates howRíg, identified asHeimdall in the introduction, sired three sons—Thrall (slave),Churl (freeman), andJarl (noble)—by human women. These sons became the ancestors of the three classes of humans indicated by their names. When Jarl reached an age when he began to handle weapons and show other signs of nobility,Ríg returned and, having claimed him as a son, taught him the runes. In 1555, the exiled Swedish archbishopOlaus Magnus recorded a tradition that a man namedKettil Runske had stolen three rune staffs from Odin and learned the runes and their magic.
Futhark is a collective term in runology used to describe all runic rows which follows the Germanic alphabetical order of F, U, Þ, A, R, K.. etc (compare§ Runic alphabet). In English, it is also common to call each futhark after its regional composition, since the originalA-rune andK-rune shifted regionally through time:"Futhark" (ᚠᚢᚦᚨᚱᚲ) can specify the Elder runic row,"Futhorc" (ᚠᚢᚦᚩᚱᚳ) can specify the Anglo-Frisian runic row, and"Futhork" (ᚠᚢᚦᚯᚱᚴ) can specify the Younger runic row. The younger can further be divided into"Futhąrk" and"Futhork" based on the early and late transliteration of the younger Óss-rune (ᚯ).
Detail of the Elder Futhark inscription on a replica of one of the 5th-century ADGolden Horns of Gallehus found onJutland, now Denmark
The Elder Futhark, used for writingProto-Norse, consists of 24 runes that often are arranged in three groups of eight; each group is referred to as anætt (Old Norse, meaning 'clan, group'). The earliest known sequential listing of the full set of 24 runes dates to approximately AD 400 and is found on theKylver Stone inGotland, Sweden.
Each rune most likely had a name which was chosen to represent the sound of the rune itself. The names are, however, not directly attested for the Elder Futhark themselves.Germanic philologistsreconstruct names inProto-Germanic based on the names given for the runes in the later alphabets attested in therune poems and the linked names of the letters of theGothic alphabet. For example, the letter /a/ was named from the runicletter calledAnsuz. An asterisk before the rune names means that they areunattestedreconstructions. The 24 Elder Futhark runes are the following:[44]
The Anglo-Saxon runes, also known as thefuthorc (sometimes writtenfuþorc), are an extended alphabet, consisting of 29, and later 33, characters. It was probably used from the 5th century onwards. There are competing theories as to the origins of the Anglo-Saxon (also called Anglo-Frisian) Futhorc. One theory proposes that it was developed inFrisia and later spread toEngland,[citation needed] while another holds that Scandinavians introduced runes to England, where the futhorc was modified and exported to Frisia.[citation needed] Some examples of futhorc inscriptions are found on theThames scramasax, in theVienna Codex, inCotton Otho B.x (Anglo-Saxon rune poem) and on theRuthwell Cross.
The Anglo-Saxon rune poem gives the following characters and names:ᚠ feoh,ᚢ ur,ᚦ þorn,ᚩ os,ᚱ rad,ᚳ cen,ᚷ gyfu,ᚹ ƿynn,ᚻ hægl,ᚾ nyd,ᛁ is,ᛄ ger,ᛇ eoh,ᛈ peorð,ᛉ eolh,ᛋ sigel,ᛏ tir,ᛒ beorc,ᛖ eh,ᛗ mann,ᛚ lagu,ᛝ ing,ᛟ œthel,ᛞ dæg,ᚪ ac,ᚫ æsc,ᚣ yr,ᛡ ior,ᛠ ear.
Extra runes attested to outside of the rune poem includeᛢ cweorð,ᛣ calc,ᚸ gar, andᛥ stan. Some of these additional letters have only been found inmanuscripts. Feoh, þorn, and sigel stood for [f], [θ], and [s] in most environments, but voiced to [v], [ð], and [z] between vowels or voiced consonants. Gyfu and wynn stood for the lettersyogh andwynn, which became [g] and [w] inMiddle English.
A runic alphabet consisting of a mixture of Elder Futhark with Anglo-Saxon futhorc is recorded in a treatise calledDe Inventione Litterarum, ascribed toHrabanus Maurus and preserved in 8th- and 9th-century manuscripts mainly from the southern part of theCarolingian Empire (Alemannia,Bavaria). The manuscript text attributes the runes to theMarcomanni, quos nos Nordmannos vocamus, and hence traditionally, the alphabet is called "Marcomannic runes", but it has no connection with theMarcomanni, and rather is an attempt by Carolingian scholars to represent all letters of the Latin alphabets with runic equivalents.
The Younger Futhark, also called Scandinavian Futhark, is a reduced form of theElder Futhark, consisting of only 16 characters. The reduction correlates with phonetic changes whenProto-Norse evolved intoOld Norse. They are found in Scandinavia andViking Age settlements abroad, probably in use from the 9th century onward. They are divided into long-branch (Danish) and short-twig (Swedish and Norwegian) runes. The difference between the two versions is a matter of controversy. A general opinion is that the difference between them was functional (viz., the long-branch runes were used for documentation on stone, whereas the short-twig runes were in everyday use for private or official messages on wood).
While also featuring a runic inscription detailing the erection of a bridge for a loved one, the 11th-centuryRamsung carving is aSigurd stone that depicts the legend ofSigurd.
In the Middle Ages, the Younger Futhark in Scandinavia was expanded, so that it once more contained one sign for each phoneme of theOld Norse language. Dotted variants ofvoiceless signs were introduced to denote the correspondingvoiced consonants, or vice versa, voiceless variants of voiced consonants, and several new runes also appeared for vowel sounds. Inscriptions in medieval Scandinavian runes show a large number of variant rune forms, and some letters, such ass,c, andz often were used interchangeably.[48][49]
Medieval runes were in use until the 15th century. Of the total number of Norwegian runic inscriptions preserved today, most are medieval runes. Notably, more than 600 inscriptions using these runes have been discovered inBergen since the 1950s, mostly on wooden sticks (the so-calledBryggen inscriptions). This indicates that runes were in common use side by side with the Latin alphabet for several centuries. Indeed, some of the medieval runic inscriptions are written in Latin.
According to Carl-Gustav Werner, "In the isolated province ofDalarna in Sweden a mix of runes and Latin letters developed."[50] The Dalecarlian runes came into use in the early 16th century and remained in some use up to the 20th century.[51] Some discussion remains on whether their use was an unbroken tradition throughout this period or whether people in the 19th and 20th centuries learned runes from books written on the subject. The character inventory was used mainly for transcribingSwedish in areas whereElfdalian was predominant.
While Roman script would ultimately replace runes in most contexts, it differed significantly from runic script. For example, on the differences between the use of Anglo-Saxon runes and the Latin script that would come to replace them, runologist Victoria Symons says:
As well as being distinguished from the roman alphabet in visual appearance and letter order, the fuþorc is further set apart by the fact that, unlike their roman counterparts, runic letters are often associated not only with sound values but also with names. These names are often nouns and, in almost all instances, they begin with the sound value represented by the associated letter. ... The fact that each rune represents [both] a sound value and a word gives this writing system a multivalent quality that further distinguishes it from roman script. A roman letter simply represents its sound value. When used, for example, for the purpose of pagination, such letters can assume added significance, but this is localised to the context of an individual manuscript. Runic letters, on the other hand, are inherently multivalent; they can, and often do, represent several different kinds of information simultaneously. This aspect of runic letters is one that is frequently employed and exploited by writers and scribes who include them in their manuscripts.[52]
In addition to their historic use as letters in the runic alphabets, runes were also used to represent their names (ideographs). Such instances are sometimes referred to by way of the modern German loan wordBegriffsrunen, meaning 'concept-runes' (singularBegriffsrune). The criteria for the use ofBegriffsrunen and the frequency of their use by ancient rune-writers remains controversial.[53] The topic ofBegriffsrunen has produced much discussion among runologists. RunologistKlaus Düwel has proposed two criteria for the identification of runes asBegriffsrunen: A graphic argument and a semantic argument.[53]
Examples ofBegriffsrunen (or potentialBegriffsrunen) include the following:
In this inscription, several runes repeat in a sentence to form an unknown meaning. Various scholars have proposed that these runes represent repeatedBegriffsrunen.
This object was cut by thieves, damaging one of the runes. The identity of this rune was debated by scholars until a photograph of it was republished that, according to runologist Bernard Mees, clearly indicates it to have beenOthala.[54]
This inscription is commonly cited as containing aBegriffsrune.[53]
In addition to the instances above, several different runes occur as ideographs in Old English and Old Norse manuscripts (featuringAnglo-Saxon runes andYounger Futhark runes respectively). Runologist Thomas Birkett summarizes these numerous instances as follows:
Themaðr rune is found regularly in Icelandic manuscripts, thefé rune somewhat less frequently, whilst in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts the runesmon,dæg,wynn andeþel are all used on occasion. These are some of the most functional of the rune names, occurring relatively often in written language, unlike the elusivepeorð, for example, which would be of little or no use as an abbreviation because of its rarity. The practicality of using an abbreviation for a familiar noun such as 'man' is demonstrated clearly in the Old Norse poemHávamál, where themaðr rune is used a total of forty-five times, saving a significant amount of space and effort (Codex Regius: 5–14)[55]
The modern study of runes was initiated during the Renaissance, byJohannes Bureus (1568–1652). Bureus viewed runes as holy or magical in akabbalistic sense. The study of runes was continued byOlof Rudbeck Sr (1630–1702) and presented in his collectionAtlantica.Anders Celsius (1701–1744) further extended the science of runes and travelled around the whole of Sweden to examine therunstenar. From the "golden age ofphilology" in the 19th century, runology formed a specialized branch ofGermanic linguistics.
TheVimose Comb from the island ofFunen, Denmark, features the earliest known runic inscription (AD 150 to 200) and simply reads, ᚺᚨᚱᛃᚨ "Harja", a male name.[56]
The largest group of surviving Runic inscription areViking AgeYounger Futhark runestones, commonly found in Denmark and Sweden.[57] Another large group are medieval runes, most commonly found on small objects, often wooden sticks. The largest concentration of runic inscriptions are theBryggen inscriptions found inBergen, more than 650 in total.Elder Futhark inscriptions number around 350, about 260 of which are from Scandinavia, of which about half are onbracteates.Anglo-Saxon futhorc inscriptions number around 100 items.
The pioneer of theArmanist branch ofAriosophy and one of the more important figures inesotericism in Germany and Austria in the late 19th and early 20th century was theAustrian occultist, mysticist, andvölkisch author,Guido von List. In 1908, he published inDas Geheimnis der Runen ("The Secret of the Runes") a set of eighteen so-called, "Armanen runes", based on the Younger Futhark and runes of List's own introduction, which allegedly were revealed to him in a state of temporary blindness after cataract operations on both eyes in 1902. The use of runes inGermanic mysticism, notably List's "Armanen runes" and the derived "Wiligut runes" byKarl Maria Wiligut, played a certain role inNazi symbolism. The fascination with runic symbolism was mostly limited toHeinrich Himmler, and not shared by the other members of the Nazi top echelon. Consequently, runes appear mostly in insignia associated with theSchutzstaffel ("SS"), the paramilitary organization led by Himmler. Wiligut is credited with designing theSS-Ehrenring, which displays a number of "Wiligut runes".[citation needed]
TheUthark theory originally was proposed as a scholarly hypothesis bySigurd Agrell in 1932.In 2002, Swedish esotericistThomas Karlsson popularized this "Uthark" runic row, which he refers to as, the "night side of the runes", in the context of modern occultism.[citation needed]
Runes play an important role in the horror story "Casting the Runes," by the academic Medievalist and ghost story author M. R. James, first published in his 1911 collection "More Ghost Stories of an Antiquary." InJ. R. R. Tolkien's novelThe Hobbit (1937), the Anglo-Saxon runes are used on a map and on the title page to emphasize its connection to theDwarves. They also were used in the initial drafts ofThe Lord of the Rings, but later were replaced by theCirth rune-like alphabet invented by Tolkien, used to write the language of the Dwarves,Khuzdul. Following Tolkien, historical and fictional runes appear commonly in modern popular culture, particularly infantasy literature, like inJ. K. Rowling'sHarry Potter, where Runes is a subject taught at Hogwarts, also in the 7th bookHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Dumbledore gave Hermione a children's book calledThe Tales of Beedle the Bard which is written in runes.[citation needed]
Runes feature extensively in many video games that incorporate themes from early Germanic cultures, includingHellblade: Senua's Sacrifice,Jøtun,Northgard andGod of War. They are used for a range of purposes including as names, symbols, decoration and on runestones that provide information about Nordic mythology and background for the game's narrative.[58][59][60]
The 1992 video gameHeimdall used runes as "magical symbols" associated with unnatural forces.Role-playing games, such as theUltima series, use a runic font for in-game signs and printed maps and booklets, andMetagaming'sThe Fantasy Trip used rune-based cipher for clues and jokes throughout its publications.[citation needed]
Runic alphabets were added to theUnicode Standard in September, 1999 with the release of version 3.0.
TheUnicode block for Runic alphabets is U+16A0–U+16FF. It is intended to encode the letters of theElder Futhark, theAnglo-Frisian runes, and theYounger Futhark long-branch and short-twig (but not the staveless) variants, in cases where cognate letters have the same shape resorting to "unification".
The block as of Unicode 3.0 contained 81 symbols: 75 runic letters (U+16A0–U+16EA), 3 punctuation marks (Runic Single Punctuation U+16EB᛫, Runic Multiple Punctuation U+16EC᛬ and Runic Cross Punctuation U+16ED᛭), and three runic symbols that are used in early modernrunic calendar staves ("Golden number Runes", RunicArlaug Symbol U+16EEᛮ, RunicTvimadur Symbol U+16EFᛯ, RunicBelgthor Symbol U+16F0ᛰ). As of Unicode 7.0 (2014), eight characters were added, three representingJ. R. R. Tolkien's mode of writing Modern English in Anglo-Saxon runes, and five for the "cryptogrammic" vowel symbols used in an inscription on theFranks Casket.
^ The oldest known runic inscription dates to around AD 150 and is found on a comb discovered in the bog ofVimose,Funen,Denmark.[15] The inscription readsharja; a disputed candidate for a 1st-century inscription is on theMeldorf fibula in southernJutland.
^Inscriptions such aswagnija,niþijo, andharija are supposed to represent tribe names, tentatively proposed to beVangiones, theNidensis, and theHarii tribes located in theRhineland.[23] Since names ending in-io reflect Germanic morphology representing the Latin ending-ius, and the suffix-inius was reflected by Germanic-inio-,[24][25] the question of the problematic ending-ijo in masculine Proto-Norse would be resolved by assuming Roman (Rhineland) influences, while "the awkward ending -a oflaguþewa[26] may be solved by accepting the fact that the name may indeed be West Germanic".[23]
^Delamarre, Xavier (2003).Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental. Errance. p. 122.ISBN9782877723695.
^Rix, Robert W. (2011). "Runes and Roman: Germanic literacy and the significance of runic writing".Textual Cultures.6:114–144.doi:10.2979/textcult.6.1.114.
^Tacitus, Cornelius (1942)."Germany and its Tribes, chapter 10". In Alfred John Church; William Jackson Brodribb; Lisa Cerrato (eds.).Complete Works of Tacitus (1999 Perseus ed.). New York: Random House.Archived from the original on 2020-08-03. Retrieved2023-01-18.
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Foote, P. G.; Wilson, D. M. (1970).The Viking Achievement. London: Sidgwick & Jackson. p. 401.ISBN978-0-283-97926-2.
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Penzl, Herbert; Hall, Margaret Austin (Mar 1994a). "The Cambridge history of the English language, vol. I: the beginnings to 1066".Language (review).70 (1):185–89.doi:10.2307/416753.eISSN1535-0665.ISSN0097-8507.JSTOR416753.
Penzl, Herbert; Hall, Margaret Austin (1994b).Englisch: Eine Sprachgeschichte nach Texten von 350 bis 1992 : vom Nordisch-Westgermanischen zum Neuenglischen. Germanistische Lehrbuchsammlung: Literatur. Vol. 82. Lang.ISBN978-3-906751-79-5.
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Syrett, Martin (1994).The Unaccented Vowels of Proto-Norse. North-Western European Language Evolution. Vol. 11. John Benjamins.ISBN978-87-7838-049-4.
Weisgerber, Johannes Leo (1966–1967). "Frühgeschichtliche Sprachbewegungen im Kölner Raum (mit 8 Karten)".Rheinische Vierteljahrsblätter (in German).
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