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Inmedieval andancient philosophy, theWheel of Fortune orRota Fortunae is a symbol of the capricious nature ofFate. The wheel belongs to the goddessFortuna (Greek equivalent:Tyche) who spins it at random, changing the positions of those on the wheel: some suffer great misfortune, others gain windfalls. The metaphor was already a cliché in ancient times, complained about byTacitus, but was greatly popularized for theMiddle Ages by its extended treatment in theConsolation of Philosophy byBoethius from around 520. It became a common image in manuscripts of the book, and then other media, where Fortuna, often blindfolded, turns a large wheel of the sort used inwatermills, to which kings and other powerful figures are attached.
The origin of the word is from the "wheel of fortune"—thezodiac, referring to theCelestial spheres of which the 8th holds the stars, and the 9th is where the signs of the zodiac are placed. The concept was first invented in Babylon and later developed by theancient Greeks, with early references from Cicero'sIn Pisonem.
Cicero wrote: “The house of your colleague rang with song and cymbals while he himself danced naked at a feast, wherein, even while he executed his whirling gyrations, he felt no fear of the Wheel of Fortune” ("cum conlegae tui domus cantu et cymbalis personaret cumque ipse nudus in convivio saltaret, in quo cum illum saltatorium versaret orbem, ne tum qui dem fortunae rotam pertimescebat")."[1]
The concept somewhat resembles thebhavachakra, or Wheel of Becoming, depicted throughout Ancient Indian art and literature, except that the earliest conceptions in the Roman and Greek world involve not a two-dimensional wheel but a three-dimensional sphere, a metaphor for the world. It was widely used in the Ptolemaic perception of the universe as thezodiac being a wheel with its "signs" constantly turning throughout the year and having effect on the world's fate (or fortune).
In the second century BC, the Roman tragedianPacuvius wrote:
Fortunam insanam esse et caecam et brutam perhibent philosophi,
Saxoque instare in globoso praedicant volubili:
Id quo saxum inpulerit fors, eo cadere Fortunam autumant.
Caecam ob eam rem esse iterant, quia nihil cernat, quo sese adplicet;
Insanam autem esse aiunt, quia atrox, incerta instabilisque sit;
Brutam, quia dignum atque indignum nequeat internoscere.Philosophers say that Fortune is insane and blind and stupid,
and they teach that she stands on a rolling, spherical rock:
they affirm that, wherever chance pushes that rock, Fortuna falls in that direction.
They repeat that she is blind for this reason: that she does not see where she's heading;
they say she's insane, because she is cruel, flaky and unstable;stupid, because she can't distinguish between the worthy and the unworthy.
— Pacuvius,Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta. Vol. 1, ed. O. Ribbeck, 1897
The idea of the rolling ball of fortune became aliterary topos and was used frequently in declamation. In fact, theRota Fortunae became a prime example of a trite topos ormeme forTacitus, who mentions its rhetorical overuse in theDialogus de oratoribus.
In the second century AD, astronomer and astrologerVettius Valens wrote:
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The goddess and her Wheel were eventually absorbed into Westernmedieval thought. TheRoman philosopherBoethius (c. 480–524) played a key role,[5] utilizing both her and her Wheel in hisConsolatio Philosophiae. For example, from the first chapter of the second book:
I know the manifold deceits of that monstrous lady, Fortune; in particular, her fawning friendship with those whom she intends to cheat, until the moment when she unexpectedly abandons them, and leaves them reeling in agony beyond endurance.
[...]
Having entrusted yourself to Fortune's dominion, you must conform to your mistress's ways. What, are you trying to halt the motion of her whirling wheel? Dimmest of fools that you are, you must realize that if the wheel stops turning, it ceases to be the course of chance."[6]
Boethius had a unique perspective on Fortune and blended the concepts from Paganism and Christianity. The Pagans viewed Fortune as an "independent ruling power", whereas Christians viewed Fortune as a "power completely subservient to another God".[7] This allowed Boethius to depict Fortune as having power without denying the fact that a Christian God has control.
The medieval Wheel of Fortunes appeared in the eleventh century from readings of Boethius'Consoldations and aimed to show the transitory, ephemeral and almost illusionary character of worldly power. The image first appeared during theGregorian Reform, when the Church sought to get independent from secular powers and was, though initially scholarly in its application, quickly disseminated in society. Thus it was sculpted on cathedrals, though its meaning often changed.[8]
The Wheel was widely used as anallegory in medieval literature and art to aid religious instruction. Though classically Fortune's Wheel could be favourable and disadvantageous, medieval writers preferred to concentrate on the tragic aspect, dwelling on downfall of the mighty – serving to remind people of thetemporality of earthly things. In themorality playEveryman (c. 1495), for instance, Death comes unexpectedly to claim the protagonist. Fortune's Wheel has spun Everyman low, and Good Deeds, which he previously neglected, are needed to secure his passage to heaven.
Geoffrey Chaucer used the concept of the tragic Wheel of Fortune a great deal. It forms the basis for theMonk's Tale, which recounts stories of the great brought low throughout history, includingLucifer,Adam,Samson,Hercules,Nebuchadnezzar,Belshazzar,Nero,Alexander the Great,Julius Caesar and, in the following passage,Peter I of Cyprus.
~ Geoffrey Chaucer,The Canterbury Tales, The Monk's Tale[9]
Fortune's Wheel often turns up in medieval art, from manuscripts to the greatrose windows in many medieval cathedrals, which are based on the Wheel. Characteristically, it has four shelves, or stages of life, with four human figures, usually labeled on the leftregnabo (I shall reign), on the topregno (I reign) and is usually crowned, descending on the rightregnavi (I have reigned) and the lowly figure on the bottom is markedsum sine regno (I am without a kingdom).Dante employed the Wheel in theInferno and a "Wheel of Fortune" trump-card appeared in theTarot deck (circa 1440, Italy).
In the medieval and renaissance period, a popular genre of writing was "Mirrors for Princes", which set out advice for the ruling classes on how to wield power (the most famous beingThe Prince byNiccolò Machiavelli). Such political treatises could use the concept of the Wheel of Fortune as an instructive guide to their readers.John Lydgate'sFall of Princes, written for his patronHumphrey, Duke of Gloucester is a noteworthy example.
ManyArthurianromances of the era also use the concept of the Wheel in this manner, often placing theNine Worthies on it at various points.
...fortune is so variant, and the wheel so moveable, there nis none constant abiding, and that may be proved by many old chronicles, of nobleHector, andTroilus, andAlisander, the mighty conqueror, and many mo other; when they were most in their royalty, they alighted lowest.
~Lancelot inThomas Malory'sLe Morte d'Arthur, Chapter XVII.[10]
Like the Mirrors for Princes, this could be used to convey advice to readers. For instance, in most romances, Arthur's greatest military achievement – the conquest of theRoman Empire – is placed late on in the overall story. However, in Malory's work the Roman conquest and high point ofKing Arthur's reign is established very early on. Thus, everything that follows is something of a decline. Arthur, Lancelot and the otherKnights of the Round Table are meant to be the paragons ofchivalry, yet in Malory's telling of the story they are doomed to failure. In medieval thinking, onlyGod was perfect, and even a great figure like King Arthur had to be brought low. For the noble reader of the tale in the Middle Ages, this moral could serve as a warning, but also as something to aspire to. Malory could be using the concept of Fortune's Wheel to imply that if even the greatest of chivalric knights made mistakes, then a normal fifteenth-century noble didn't have to be a paragon of virtue in order to be a good knight.
The Wheel of Fortune motif appears significantly in theCarmina Burana (orBurana Codex), albeit with a postclassical phonetic spelling of the genitive formFortunae. Excerpts from two of the collection's better known poems, "Fortuna Imperatrix Mundi (Fortune, Empress of the World)" and "Fortune Plango Vulnera (I Bemoan the Wounds of Fortune)," read:
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Fortune and her Wheel have remained an enduring image throughout history. Fortune's wheel can also be found in Thomas More'sUtopia.
William Shakespeare inHamlet wrote of the "slings and arrows of outrageous fortune" and, of fortune personified, to "break all the spokes and fellies from her wheel." And inHenry V, Act 3 Scene VI[11] are the lines:
Shakespeare also references this Wheel inKing Lear. The Earl of Kent, who was once held dear by the King, has been banished, only to return in disguise. This disguised character is placed in the stocks for an overnight and laments this turn of events at the end of Act II, Scene 2:[12]
In Act IV, scene vii, King Lear also contrasts his misery on the "wheel of fire" to Cordelia's "soul in bliss".
Rosalind and Celia also discuss Fortune, especially as it stands opposed to Nature, inAs You Like It, Act I, scene ii.
Throughout Shakespeare's works, Fortuna is a powerful force that can make even kings go from greatness to ruin with her wheel. She is often used as a scapegoat to blame when someone experiences a disaster.[13]
InAnthony Trollope's novelThe Way We Live Now, the character Lady Carbury writes a novel entitledThe Wheel of Fortune about a heroine who suffers great financial hardships.
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