 Rosalind Franklin rover model, 2024 | |
| Mission type | Mars rover |
|---|---|
| Operator | ESA |
| Website | www.esa.int/...ExoMars |
| Mission duration | ≥ 7 months[1] |
| Spacecraft properties | |
| Manufacturer | Astrium · Airbus |
| Launch mass | 310 kg (680 lb) |
| Power | 1200 W·h/d solar array, 1142 W·h Lithium-ion battery[2] |
| Start of mission | |
| Launch date | 2028[3] |
| Rocket | U.S Commercial Vehicle. |
| Mars rover | |
| Landing date | NET 2029 |
| Landing site | Oxia Planum |
ExoMars programme | |
Rosalind Franklin, previously known as theExoMars rover, is a planned European roboticMars rover, part of the internationalastrobiology programmeExoMars led by theEuropean Space Agency (ESA). The rover is named afterRosalind Franklin, a British chemist andDNA research pioneer.[4]Rosalind Franklin will be the first Mars rover to drill into a depth of up to two metres below the planet's surface.[5] The rover was designed to search forbiomolecules orbiosignatures from past life. Its core task is to determine whether life ever existed onMars, or still does today.[6] As of 2025,Rosalind Franklin is expected to launch in 2028.[7] The rover, together with theAirbus-built[7] Landing Platform, will travel to Mars inside the Descent Module, connected to the Carrier Module.[8]
As of 2016, the mission was scheduled to launch in July 2020 in cooperation with the RussianRoscosmos,[9][10] and was later postponed to 2022.[11] TheRussian invasion of Ukraine has caused a delay of the programme, as the member states of the ESA voted to suspend the joint mission with Russia.[12] In July 2022, ESA terminated its cooperation on the project with Russia.[13] As of May 2022[update], the launch of the rover was not expected to occur before 2028 due to the need for a new non-Russian landing platform.[14][15] In 2024, the project received additional funding to restart and complete the mission. The award went toThales Alenia Space and launch was scheduled for 2028.[16] ESA also signed an agreement withNASA to procure a US launch vehicle for the mission.[3] TheTrace Gas Orbiter (TGO), launched in 2016, will operate as the data-relay satellite ofRosalind Franklin.[17]
The rover was originally proposed in 2001 as part of ESA'sAurora Programme.[18] In 2009, it was proposed to be launched together withNASA'sMAX-C rover.[19] However, MAX-C was cancelled in April 2011 due to budget cuts.[20][21][22] TheRosalind Franklin rover is an autonomous six-wheeled vehicle with mass approximately 300 kg (660 lb), about 60% more than NASA's 2004Mars Exploration RoversSpirit andOpportunity,[23] but about one third that of NASA's two most recent rovers:Curiosity rover, launched in 2011, andPerseverance rover, launched in 2020. ESA returned to this original rover design after NASA descoped its involvement in a joint rover mission. The rover will carry a 2-metre (6 ft 7 in) sub-surface sampling drill and Analytical Laboratory Drawer (ALD), supporting the nine science instruments.[24][1][25][26][27]
The lead builder of the rover, the British division ofAirbus Defence and Space, began procuring critical components in March 2014.[28] In December 2014, ESA member states approved the funding for the rover, to be sent on the second launch in 2018,[29] but insufficient funds had already started to threaten a launch delay until 2020.[30] The wheels and suspension system were paid for by theCanadian Space Agency and were manufactured byMDA Corporation in Canada.[28] Each wheel is 25 cm (9.8 in) in diameter.[31] Roscosmos was expected to provideradioisotope heater units (RHU) for the rover to keep its electronic components warm at night.[9][32] The rover was assembled by Airbus DS in the UK during 2018 and 2019.[33]
On 27 March 2014, a "Mars Yard" was opened atAirbus Defence and Space inStevenage, UK, to facilitate the development and testing of the rover's autonomous navigation system. The yard is 30 by 13 m (98 by 43 ft) and contains 300 tonnes (330 short tons; 300 long tons) of sand and rocks designed to mimic the terrain of the Martian environment.[34][35]
Like all other Martian rovers the ExoMars team also built a twin rover forRosalind Franklin, known as the Ground Test Model (GTM), with the nicknameAmalia. This test model borrows its name from ProfessorAmalia Ercoli Finzi, a renowned astrophysicist with broad experience in spaceflight dynamics.Amalia has demonstrated drilling soil samples down to 1.7 meters and operating all the instruments while sending scientific data to the Rover Operations Control Centre (ROCC), the operational hub that will orchestrate the roaming of the European-built rover on Mars. It was being used in a Mars terrain simulator at the ALTEC premises inTurin. In 2022, engineers were using theAmalia rover to recreate different scenarios and help them take decisions that will keepRosalind safe in the challenging environment of Mars and to run risky operations, from driving around Martian slopes seeking the best path for science operations to drilling and analyzing rocks.[36]
A primary goal when selecting the rover's landing site is to identify a particular geologic environment, or set of environments, that would support —now or in the past— microbial life. The scientists prefer a landing site with both morphologic and mineralogical evidence for past water. Furthermore, a site with spectra indicating multiplehydrated minerals such asclay minerals is preferred, but it will come down to a balance between engineering constraints and scientific goals.[37]
Engineering constraints call for a flat landing site in a latitude band straddling the equator that is only 30° latitude from top to bottom because the rover is solar-powered and will need best sunlight exposure.[37] The landing module carrying the rover will have a landing ellipse that measures about 105 km by 15 km.[38] Scientific requirements include landing in an area with 3.6 billion years oldsedimentary rocks that are a record of the past wet habitable environment.[37][39] The year before launch, the European Space Agency will make the final decision.[37] By March 2014, the long list was:[38]
After a review by an ESA-appointed panel, a short list of four sites (Mawrth Vallis,Oxia Planum,Hypanis Vallis,Aram Dorsum) was formally recommended in October 2014 for further detailed analysis.[40][41] These landing sites exhibit evidence of a complex aqueous history in the past.[42]
On 21 October 2015,Oxia Planum was chosen as the preferred landing site for the rover, withAram Dorsum andMawrth Vallis as backup options.[42][43] In March 2017 the Landing Site Selection Working Group narrowed the choice to Oxia Planum and Mawrth Vallis,[44] and in November 2018, Oxia Planum was once again chosen, pending sign-off by the heads of the European and Russian space agencies.[45]
In July 2018, the European Space Agency launched a public outreach campaign to choose a name for the rover.[46] On 7 February 2019, the ExoMars rover was namedRosalind Franklin in honour of scientistRosalind Franklin (1920–1958),[47] who made key contributions to the understanding of the molecular structures ofDNA (deoxyribonucleic acid),RNA (ribonucleic acid),viruses,coal, andgraphite.[48]
By March 2013, the spacecraft was scheduled to launch in 2018 with a Mars landing in early 2019.[49] Delays in European and Russian industrial activities and deliveries of scientific payloads forced the launch to be pushed back. In May 2016, ESA announced that the mission had been moved to the next availablelaunch window of July 2020.[10] ESA ministerial meetings in December 2016 reviewed mission issues including€300 million ExoMars funding and lessons learned from the ExoMars 2016Schiaparelli mission, which had crashed after its atmospheric entry and parachute descent (the 2020 mission drawing onSchiaparelli heritage for elements of its entry, descent and landing systems).[50] In March 2020, ESA delayed the launch to August–October 2022 due to parachute testing issues.[11] This was later refined to a twelve-day launch window starting on 20 September until 1 October 2022, with a scheduled landing around 10 June 2023.[51]
The delay of the rover mission to 2020 from 2018 meant that Oxia Planum was no longer the only favourable landing site due to changes in the possiblelanding ellipse. Both Mawrth Vallis and Aram Dorsum, surviving candidates from the previous selection, could be reconsidered. ESA convened further workshops to re-evaluate the three remaining options and in March 2017 selected two sites (Mawrth Vallis,Oxia Planum) to study in detail.[52]
On 9 November 2018, ESA announced thatOxia Planum was favoured by the Landing Site Selection Working Group. The favored Oxia Planum landing ellipse is situated at 18.20°N, 335.45°E.[53] In 2019,Oxia Planum was confirmed by ESA as the landing site for the planned 2020 mission.[54] Later that year, a flyover video of the landing site was released, created using high-accuracy 3D models of the terrain obtained fromHiRISE.[55]
In August 2022, theOxia Planum region was discovered to be rich inclays, which are formed in water-rich environments.[56] In March 2025, scientists have published the most detailed geological map ofOxia Planum ever in theJournal of Maps.[57] The map will be used by ESA to decide how the rover explores the area, interprets its surroundings, and collects scientific evidence.[58]
The worsening diplomatic crisis over theRussian invasion of Ukraine further delayed the launch, due to the plan to use Russian launch and landing hardware.[59][60] On 17 March 2022, ESA announced that the launch of the rover has been suspended, with the earliest new date being sometime in late 2024.[12]
In 2024, the mission received additional funding to restart the mission. The award went toThales Alenia Space, with a launch scheduled for 2028.[16] In May 2024, ESA signed an agreement with NASA to procure a US launch vehicle for the mission.[3] In March 2025, ESA has selectedSENER to develop several systems for the Descent Module (landing gear, mechanisms and adapter for separating the entry capsule, and UHF communications antennas) and for the rover (drill positioning and translation system, solar panel deployment mechanism, and X and UHF band antennas).[61] Later in March 2025,Airbus was selected to build the landing platform replacing the previously planned Russian lander.[62]
In March 2025, the French-German Research Institute of Saint-Louis (ISL) was testing the aerodynamics of the Descent Module by shooting a tiny sensor-equipped model of the capsule from a gun at speeds ranged from 1,800 to 4,300km/h.[63] On 7 July 2025, ESA has retested the parachutes by dropping a dummy Descent Module from a stratospheric helium balloon launched fromEsrange. This was needed for recertification of the system after the restart of the mission preparations.[64] In early August 2025,ArianeGroup has receives aheat shield mock-up from Loiretech to be used for the initial qualification of the Descent Module heat shield.[65]
In October 2025, the Polish company Astronika demonstrated the deployment of the landing platform's ramps[66][67] and the WelshAberystwyth University delivered a test model of the ENFYS infrared spectrometer, replacing the cancelled Russian ISEM, for installation on the rover's Ground Test Model inTurin, Italy.[68] In early December 2025, Loiretech delivered a full-scale mock-up of the rear heat shield structure of the Descent Module toArianeGroup's facilities inSaint-Médard-en-Jalles.[69]
In late 2025, NASA confirmed that it still planned to provide all previously agreed elements of the mission (launch vehicle, radioisotope heater, braking engine, and one science instrument) despite the budget uncertainty in the US.[70][71][72] At the November 2025 ministerial council inBremen, ESA member states confirmed all necessary funding for continuation of theExoMars programme including theRosalind Franklin rover, althought the overallHuman and Robotic Exploration programme received lower than expected funding.[69][73][74] In December 2025,Thales Alenia Space andAirbus started performing drop tests with a full-scale model of the landing platform inTurin, Italy in order to verify the performance of the platform's landing legs and touchdown sensors.[75]
The landing platform and theRosalind Franklin rover will travel to Mars inside the Descent Module. The Descent Module will be attached to the Carrier Module, which will provide power, propulsion, and navigation. The Carrier Module has 16hydrazine powered thrusters, 6 solar arrays that will provide electricity,Sun sensors andstar trackers for navigation. It was developed and built byOHB System inBremen, Germany. The Carrier Module will separate from the Descent Module right before the stacked spacecraft arrives at Mars.[8][76][77]
The pre-2022 plan called for a Russian launch vehicle, an ESA carrier module, and a Russian lander namedKazachok,[78] that would deploy the rover to Mars's surface.[49] AfterKazachok landed, it would have extended a ramp to deploy theRosalind Franklin rover to the surface. The lander would have remained stationary and started a two-year mission[79] to investigate the surface environment at the landing site.[80] The lander was expected to image the landing site, monitor the climate, investigate the atmosphere, analyse the radiation environment, study the distribution of any subsurface water at the landing site, and perform geophysical investigations of the internal structure of Mars.[81]
Science instruments were planned in two groups: the Pasteur payload (on the rover) and the Humboldt payload (on the lander).[26] Following a March 2015 request for the contribution of scientific instruments for the landing system,[82] it was expected to host 13 instruments.[83] Examples of the instruments on the lander include theHABIT (HabitAbility: Brine, Irradiation and Temperature) package, the METEO meteorological package, the MAIGRET magnetometer, and theLaRa (Lander Radioscience) experiment. The stationary lander was expected to operate for at least one Earth year, and its instruments would have been powered by solar arrays.[84]
The new European landing platform replacingKazachok will be built byAirbus[62] inStevenage,UK[85] and will use throttable braking engines provided byNASA.[86] The landing is planned for 2030. The platform will use a set of parachutes and retro rockets to slow down from 45 m/s to less than 3 m/s just before touchdown. After landing, two ramps will extend from opposite sides of the platform, offering a choice of routes to reach the surface.[87] The landing platform will not have its ownsolar panels nor any scientific instruments. It will cease to operate a few sols after deploying the rover to the surface.[88]
The rover will have anamericiumradioisotope heater unit (RHU), to heat the lander components. It will be the first usage ofamericium-241 on any spacecraft.[89] Americium-241 has a considerably longerhalf-life thanplutonium-238, the radioisotope used to power NASA's Perseverance and Curiosity rovers. However, as a consequence, thepower density of a241Am-based RHU is considerably lower than that of a238Pu-based RHU.
The ExoMars mission requires the rover to be capable of driving across the Martian terrain at 70 m (230 ft) persol (Martian day) to enable it to meet its science objectives.[90][91] The rover is designed to operate for at least seven months and drive 4 km (2.5 mi), after landing.[28]
Since the rover communicates with the ground controllers via theExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO), and the orbiter only passes over the rover approximately twice per sol, the ground controllers will not be able to actively guide the rover across the surface. TheRosalind Franklin rover is therefore designed to navigate autonomously across the Martian surface.[92][93] Two stereo camera pairs (NavCam and LocCam) allow the rover to build up a 3D map of the terrain,[94] which the navigation software then uses to assess the terrain around the rover so that it avoids obstacles and finds an efficient route to the ground controller specified destination.
The rover will search for two types of subsurface life signatures, morphological and chemical. It will not analyse atmospheric samples,[95] and it has no dedicated meteorological station.[96] The 26 kg (57 lb)[1] scientific payload comprises the following survey and analytical instruments:[9]
PanCam has been designed to perform digital terrain mapping for the rover and to search for morphological signatures of past biological activity preserved on the texture of surface rocks.[97] The PanCam Optical Bench (OB) mounted on the Rover mast includes two wide angle cameras (WACs) for multi-spectral stereoscopic panoramic imaging, and a high resolution camera (HRC) for high-resolution colour imaging.[98][99]
PanCam will also support the scientific measurements of other instruments by taking high-resolution images of locations that are difficult to access, such as craters or rock walls, and by supporting the selection of the best sites to carry out exobiology studies.
In addition to the OB, PanCam includes a calibration target (PCT), Fiducial Markers (FidMs) and Rover Inspection Mirror (RIM). The PCT'sstained glass calibration targets will provide a UV-stable reflectance and colour reference for PanCam and ISEM, allowing for the generation of calibrated data products.[97][100]
The Russian ISEM optical box would be installed on the rover's mast, below PanCam's HRC, with an electronics box inside the Rover. It would be used to assess bulk mineralogy characterization and remote identification of water-related minerals. Working with PanCam, ISEM would contribute to the selection of suitable samples for further analysis by the other instruments.[101][102]
The Russian-built ISEM instrument was replaced by a UK-built instrument ENFYS, led by theUniversity of Aberystwyth inWales. This spectrometer will be installed in the same location below PanCam's HRC instrument, and will perform an identical role in assessing bulk mineralogy using IR spectrometry[103][104][105] with special focus onclay minerals.[106] The development of ENFYS was supported with£10.7 million from theUK Space Agency.[68] ENFYS was named after theWelsh word for rainbow.[106]
WISDOM is aground-penetrating radar that will explore the subsurface of Mars to identify layering and help select interesting buried formations from which to collect samples for analysis.[107][108] It can transmit and receive signals using twoVivaldi-antennas mounted on the aft section of the rover, with electronics inside the Rover. Electromagnetic waves penetrating into the ground are reflected at places where there is a sudden transition in the electrical parameters of the soil. By studying these reflections it is possible to construct a stratigraphic map of the subsurface and identify underground targets down to 2 to 3 m (7 to 10 ft) in depth, comparable to the2 m reach of the rover's drill. These data, combined with those produced by the other survey instruments and by the analyses carried out on previously collected samples, will be used to support drilling activities.[109]
Adron-RM is aneutron spectrometer to search forsubsurface water ice andhydrated minerals.[101][102][110][42] It is housed inside the Rover and will be used in combination with theWISDOMground-penetrating radar to study the subsurface beneath the rover and to search for optimal sites for drilling and sample collection.[citation needed]
CLUPI, mounted on the drill box, will visually study rock targets at close range (50 cm/20 in) with sub-millimetre resolution. This instrument will also investigate the fines produced during drilling operations, and image samples collected by the drill. CLUPI has variable focusing and can obtain high-resolution images at longer distances.[9][101] The CLUPI imaging unit is complemented by two mirrors and a calibration target.
Ma_MISS is aninfrared spectrometer located inside thecore drill.[111] Ma_MISS will observe the lateral wall of the borehole created by the drill to study the subsurface stratigraphy, to understand the distribution and state of water-related minerals, and to characterise the geophysical environment. The analyses of unexposed material by Ma_MISS, together with data obtained with the spectrometers located inside the rover, will be crucial for the unambiguous interpretation of the original conditions of Martian rock formation.[9][112] The composition of the regolith and crustal rocks provides important information about the geologic evolution of the near-surface crust, the evolution of the atmosphere and climate, and the existence of past life.
MicrOmega is aninfrared hyperspectral microscope housed within the Rover's ALD that can analyse the powder material derived from crushing samples collected by the core drill.[9][113] Its objective is to study mineral grain assemblages in detail to try to unravel their geological origin, structure, and composition. These data will be vital for interpreting past and present geological processes and environments on Mars. Because MicrOmega is an imaging instrument, it can also be used to identify grains that are particularly interesting, and assign them as targets for Raman and MOMA-LDMS observations.
RLS is aRaman spectrometer housed within the ALD that will provide geological and mineralogical context information complementary to that obtained by MicrOmega. It is a fast technique employed to identify mineral phases produced by water-related processes.[114][115][116] Its purpose is to help identifyorganic compounds and search for life by identifying the mineral products and indicators of biologic activities (biosignatures).[citation needed]
MOMA is the rover's largest instrument, housed within the ALD. It will conduct a broad-range, very-high sensitivity search for organic molecules in the collected sample. It includes two different ways for extracting organics:laser desorption and thermal volatilisation, followed by separation using fourGC-MS columns. The identification of the evolved organic molecules is performed with anion trap mass spectrometer.[9] TheMax Planck Institute for Solar System Research is leading the development. International partners include NASA.[117] The mass spectrometer is provided from theGoddard Space Flight Center, while theGC is provided by the two French institutes LISA and LATMOS. The UV-Laser is being developed by the Laser Zentrum Hannover.[118]
Sampling from beneath the Martian surface with the intent to reach and analyze material unaltered or minimally affected bycosmic radiation is the strongest advantage ofRosalind Franklin. The ExoMarscore drill was fabricated in Italy with heritage from the earlier DeeDri development, and incorporates the Ma_MISS instrument (see above).[119] It is designed to acquire soil samples down to a maximum depth of 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) in a variety of soil types. The drill will acquire a core sample 1 cm (0.4 in) in diameter by 3 cm (1.2 in) in length, extract it and deliver it to the sample container of the ALD's Core Sample Transport Mechanism (CSTM). The CSTM drawer is then closed and the sample dropped into a crushing station. The resulting powder is fed by a dosing station into receptacles on the ALD's sample carousel: either the refillable container - for examination by MicrOmega, RLS and MOMA-LDMS - or a MOMA-GC oven. The system will complete experiment cycles and at least two vertical surveys down to 2 m (with four sample acquisitions each). This means that a minimum number of 17 samples shall be acquired and delivered by the drill for subsequent analysis.[120][121]
The proposed payload has changed several times. The last major change was after the program switched from the larger rover concept back to the previous 300 kg (660 lb) rover design in 2012.[101]
ESA's member states also approved funding to upgrade the smaller Vega launch vehicle, continue participating in the International Space Station, and proceed with the second part of its ExoMars mission.
In 2018, a Russian-built radioactive heat generator would be installed on the ExoMars rover, along with possible suit of Russian instruments.
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