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Romanization

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Transliteration or transcription to Latin letters
"Romanised" redirects here. For the racehorse, seeRomanised (horse).
For other uses, seeRomanisation (disambiguation) andLatinisation (disambiguation).
Not to be confused withRomanianization.
Mandarin Chinese, like many languages, can be romanized in a number of ways; above:Traditional andSimplified Chinese characters meaning Chinese, and romanization systemsHanyu Pinyin,Gwoyeu Romatzyh,Wade-Giles andYale for those characters.

Inlinguistics,romanization orromanisation is the conversion of text from a differentwriting system to theRoman (Latin) script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization includetransliteration, for representing written text, andtranscription, for representing the spoken word, and combinations of both. Transcription methods can be subdivided intophonemic transcription, which records thephonemes or units ofsemantic meaning in speech, and more strictphonetic transcription, which records speech sounds with precision.

Methods

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There are many consistent orstandardized romanization systems. They can be classified by their characteristics. A particular system's characteristics may make it better-suited for various, sometimes contradictory applications, including document retrieval, linguistic analysis, easy readability, faithful representation of pronunciation.

  • Source, or donor language – A system may be tailored to romanize text from a particular language, or a series of languages, or for any language in a particular writing system. A language-specific system typically preserves language features like pronunciation, while the general one may be better for cataloguing international texts.
  • Target, or receiver language – Most systems are intended for an audience that speaks or reads a particular language. (So-calledinternational romanization systems for Cyrillic text are based on central-European alphabets like theCzech andCroatian alphabet.)
  • Simplicity – Since the basicLatin alphabet has a smaller number of letters than many other writing systems,digraphs,diacritics, or special characters must be used to represent them all in Latin script. This affects the ease of creation, digital storage and transmission, reproduction, and reading of the romanized text.
  • Reversibility – Whether or not the original can be restored from the converted text. Some reversible systems allow for an irreversible simplified version.

Transliteration

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Main article:Transliteration

If the romanization attempts to transliterate the original script, the guiding principle is a one-to-one mapping of characters in the source language into the target script, with less emphasis on how the result sounds when pronounced according to the reader's language. For example, theNihon-shiki romanization ofJapanese allows the informed reader to reconstruct the original Japanesekana syllables with 100% accuracy, but requires additional knowledge for correct pronunciation.

Transcription

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Main article:Transcription (linguistics)

Phonemic

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See also:Phonemic orthography

Most romanizations are intended to enable the casual reader who is unfamiliar with the original script to pronounce the source language reasonably accurately. Such romanizations follow the principle ofphonemic transcription and attempt to render the significant sounds (phonemes) of the original as faithfully as possible in the target language. The popularHepburn Romanization of Japanese is an example of a transcriptive romanization designed for English speakers.

Phonetic

[edit]
See also:Phonetic transcription

Aphonetic conversion goes one step further and attempts to depict allphones in the source language, sacrificing legibility if necessary by using characters or conventions not found in the target script. In practice such a representation almost never tries to representevery possible allophone—especially those that occur naturally due tocoarticulation effects—and instead limits itself to the most significant allophonic distinctions. TheInternational Phonetic Alphabet is the most common system of phonetic transcription.

Compromise

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For most language pairs, building a usable romanization involves a trade-off between the two extremes. Pure transcriptions are generally not possible, as the source language usually contains sounds and distinctions not found in the target language, but which must be shown for the romanized form to be comprehensible. Furthermore, due todiachronic andsynchronic variance nowritten language represents anyspoken language with perfect accuracy and the vocal interpretation of ascript may vary by a great degree among languages. In modern times the chain of transcription is usually spoken foreign language, written foreign language, written native language, spoken (read) native language. Reducing the number of those processes, i.e. removing one or both steps of writing, usually leads to more accurate oral articulations. In general, outside a limited audience of scholars, romanizations tend to lean more towards transcription. As an example, consider the Japanese martial art 柔術: the Nihon-shiki romanizationzyûzyutu may allow someone who knows Japanese to reconstruct the kana syllablesじゅうじゅつ, but most native English speakers, or rather readers, would find it easier to guess the pronunciation from the Hepburn version,jūjutsu.

Romanization of specific writing systems

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See also:Category:Romanization
This list isincomplete; you can help byadding missing items.(May 2021)

Arabic

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TheArabic script is used to writeArabic,Persian,Urdu,Pashto andSindhi as well as numerous other languages in the Muslim world, particularlyAfrican andAsian languages without alphabets of their own. Romanization standards include the following:

Arabic

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Main articles:Romanization of Arabic andMaltese alphabet

Persian

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Main article:Romanization of Persian
See also:Category:Persian orthography
Consonants
UnicodePersian
letter		IPADMG (1969)ALA-LC (1997)BGN/PCGN (1958)EI (1960)EI (2012)UN (1967)UN (2012)Pronunciation
U+0627اʔ,∅[a]ʾ, —[b]ʼ, —[b]ʾ- as in uh-oh
U+0628بbbB as in Bob
U+067EپppP as in pet
U+062AتttT as in tall
U+062Bثss̱s̱s̄t͟hṯs̄sS as in sand
U+062Cجdʒǧjjd͟jjjJ as in jam
U+0686چtʃčchchčchčCh as in Charlie
U+062Dحhḥḥḩ/ḥ[c]ḥḩhH as in holiday
U+062Eخxḫkhkhk͟hḵkhxsomewhat resembling German Ch
U+062FدddD as in Dave
U+0630ذzẕẕz̄d͟hḏz̄zZ as in zero
U+0631رrrR as in rabbit
U+0632زzzZ as in zero
U+0698ژʒžzhzhz͟hžzhžS as in television

or G as in genre

U+0633سssS as in Sam
U+0634شʃšshshs͟hšshšSh as in sheep
U+0635صsṣṣş/ṣ[c]ṣşsS as in Sam
U+0636ضzżz̤ẕḍżẕzZ as in zero
U+0637طtṭṭţ/ṭ[c]ṭţtt as in tank
U+0638ظzẓẓz̧/ẓ[c]ẓẓz̧zZ as in zero
U+0639عʕʿʻʼ[b]ʻʻʿʿ_____
U+063Aغɢ~ɣġghghg͟hḡghqsomewhat resembling French R
U+0641فffF as in Fred
U+0642قɢ~ɣqḳqsomewhat resembling French R
U+06A9کkkC as in card
U+06AFگɡgG as in go
U+0644لllL as in lamp
U+0645مmmM as in Michael
U+0646نnnN as in name
U+0648وv~w[a][d]vv, w[e]vV as in vision
U+0647هh[a]hhh[f]hh[f]h[f]H as in hot
U+0629ة∅,t—h[g]—t[h]h[g]——
U+06CCیj[a]yY as in Yale
U+0621ءʔ,∅ʾʼʾ
U+0623أʔ,∅ʾʼʾ
U+0624ؤʔ,∅ʾʼʾ
U+0626ئʔ,∅ʾʼʾ
Vowels[i]
UnicodeFinalMedialInitialIsolatedIPADMG (1969)ALA-LC (1997)BGN/PCGN (1958)EI (2012)UN (1967)UN (2012)Pronunciation
U+064EـَـَاَاَæaaaaaaA as in cat
U+064FـُـُاُاُoooouooO as in go
U+0648 U+064Fـوـو——o[j]ooouooO as in go
U+0650ـِـِاِاِeeieeeeE as in ten
U+064E U+0627ـَاـَاآآɑː~ɒːāāāāāāO as in hot
U+0622ـآـآآآɑː~ɒːā, ʾā[k]ā, ʼā[k]āāāāO as in hot
U+064E U+06CCـَی———ɑː~ɒːāááāáāO as in hot
U+06CC U+0670ـیٰ———ɑː~ɒːāááāāāO as in hot
U+064F U+0648ـُوـُواُواُوuː,oː[e]ūūūu, ō[e]ūuU as in actual
U+0650 U+06CCـیـیـایـایiː,eː[e]īīīi, ē[e]īiY as in happy
U+064E U+0648ـَوـَواَواَوow~aw[e]auawowow, aw[e]owowO as in go
U+064E U+06CCـَیـَیـاَیـاَیej~aj[e]aiayeyey, ay[e]eyeyAy as in play
U+064E U+06CCـیِ———–e,–je–e, –ye–i, –yi–e, –ye–e, –ye–e, –ye–e, –yeYe as in yes
U+06C0ـهٔ———–je–ye–ʼi–ye–ye–ye–yeYe as in yes

Notes:

  1. ^abcdUsed as a vowel as well.
  2. ^abcHamzeh and eyn are not transliterated at the beginning of words.
  3. ^abcdThe dot below may be used instead of cedilla.
  4. ^At the beginning of words the combination⟨خو⟩ was pronounced/xw/ or/xʷ/ in Classical Persian. In modern varieties the glide/ʷ/ has been lost, though the spelling has not been changed. It may be still heard in Dari as a relict pronunciation. The combination/xʷa/ was changed to/xo/ (see below).
  5. ^abcdefghiIn Dari.
  6. ^abcNot transliterated at the end of words.
  7. ^abIn the combination⟨یة⟩ at the end of words.
  8. ^When used instead of⟨ت⟩ at the end of words.
  9. ^Diacritical signs (harekat) are rarely written.
  10. ^After⟨خ⟩ from the earlier/xʷa/. Often transliterated asxwa orxva. For example,خور/xor/ "sun" was/xʷar/ in Classical Persian.
  11. ^abAfter vowels.

Armenian

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Main article:Romanization of Armenian
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This sectionneeds expansion. You can help byadding to it.(June 2015)

Georgian

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Main article:Romanization of Georgian
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This sectionneeds expansion. You can help byadding to it.(June 2015)
Georgian letterIPANational system
(2002)		BGN/PCGN
(1981–2009)		ISO 9984
(1996)		ALA-LC
(1997)		Unofficial systemKartvelo translitNGR2
ა/ɑ/aaaaaaa
ბ/b/bbbbbbb
გ/ɡ/ggggggg
დ/d/ddddddd
ე/ɛ/eeeeeee
ვ/v/vvvvvvv
ზ/z/zzzzzzz
ჱ[a]/eɪ/eyēēéejẽ
თ/tʰ/ttʼt̕tʻT[b] or ttt / t̊
ი/i/iiiiiii
კ/kʼ/kʼkkkkǩk̉
ლ/l/lllllll
მ/m/mmmmmmm
ნ/n/nnnnnnn
ჲ[a]/i/,/j/jyyjĩ
ო/ɔ/ooooooo
პ/pʼ/pʼppppp̌p̉
ჟ/ʒ/zhzhžžJ,[b] zh or jžg̃
რ/r/rrrrrrr
ს/s/sssssss
ტ/tʼ/tʼttttt̆t̉
ჳ[a]/w/wwŭf̃
უ/u/uuuuuuu
ფ/pʰ/ppʼp̕pʻp or fpp / p̊
ქ/kʰ/kkʼk̕kʻq or kq or kk / k̊
ღ/ʁ/ghghḡġg, gh or R[b]g, gh or R[b]q̃
ყ/qʼ/qʼqqqy[c]qq
შ/ʃ/shshššsh or S[b]šx
ჩ/t͡ʃ(ʰ)/chchʼč̕čʻch or C[b]čc̃
ც/t͡s(ʰ)/tstsʼc̕cʻc or tscc
ძ/d͡z/dzdzjżdz or Z[b]ʒd̃
წ/t͡sʼ/tsʼtsccw, c or tsʃc̉
ჭ/t͡ʃʼ/chʼchččW,[b] ch or tchʃ̌j̉
ხ/χ/khkhxxx or kh (rarely)xk̃
ჴ[a]/q/,/qʰ/qʼẖx̣q̌q̊
ჯ/d͡ʒ/jjǰjj-j
ჰ/h/hhhhhhh
ჵ[a]/oː/ōōȯh̃


Notes:

  1. ^abcdeArchaic letters.
  2. ^abcdefghThese are influenced by aforementioned layout, and are preferred to avoid ambiguity, as an expressions: t, j, g, ch can mean two letters.
  3. ^Initially, the use of letter y for ყ is most probably due to their resemblance to each other.

Greek

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Main article:Romanization of Greek

There are romanization systems for bothModern andAncient Greek.

Hebrew

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Main article:Romanization of Hebrew

TheHebrew alphabet is romanized using several standards:

Indic (Brahmic) scripts

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See also:Devanagari transliteration,Romanization of Bengali, andRomanisation of Malayalam

TheBrahmic family ofabugidas is used for languages of the Indian subcontinent and south-east Asia. There is a long tradition in the west to studySanskrit and other Indic texts in Latin transliteration. Various transliteration conventions have been used for Indic scripts since the time of Sir William Jones.[13]

Devanagari–nastaʿlīq (Hindustani)

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Hindustani is anIndo-Aryan language with extremedigraphia anddiglossia resulting from theHindi–Urdu controversy starting in the 1800s. Technically, Hindustani itself is recognized by neither the language community nor any governments. Twostandardizedregisters,Standard Hindi andStandard Urdu, are recognized asofficial languages in India and Pakistan. However, in practice the situation is,

  • In Pakistan: Standard (Saaf or Khaalis) Urdu is the "high" variety, whereas Hindustani is the "low" variety used by the masses (called Urdu, written innastaʿlīq script).
  • In India, both Standard (Shuddh) Hindi and Standard (Saaf or Khaalis) Urdu are the "H" varieties (written indevanagari and nastaʿlīq respectively), whereas Hindustani is the "L" variety used by the masses and written in either devanagari or nastaʿlīq (and called 'Hindi' or 'Urdu' respectively).

The digraphia renders any work in either script largely inaccessible to users of the other script, though otherwise Hindustani is a perfectly mutually intelligible language, essentially meaning that any kind of text-basedopen source collaboration is impossible among devanagari and nastaʿlīq readers.

Initiated in 2011, the Hamari Boli Initiative[15] is a full-scale open-sourcelanguage planning initiative aimed at Hindustani script, style, status & lexical reform and modernization. One of primary stated objectives of Hamari Boli is to relieve Hindustani of the crippling devanagari–nastaʿlīq digraphia by way of romanization.[16]

Chinese

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Main article:Romanization of Chinese

Romanization of theSinitic languages, particularlyMandarin, has proved a very difficult problem, although the issue is further complicated by political considerations. Because of this, many romanization tables contain Chinese characters plus one or more romanizations orZhuyin.

Mandarin

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Mainland China
[edit]
  • Hanyu Pinyin (1958): Inmainland China, Hanyu Pinyin has been used officially to romanizeMandarin for decades, primarily as a linguistic tool for teaching the standardized language. The system is also used in other Chinese-speaking areas such asSingapore and parts ofTaiwan, and has been adopted by much of the international community as a standard for writing Chinese words and names in the Latin script. The value of Hanyu Pinyin in education in China lies in the fact that China, like any other populated area with comparable area and population, has numerous distinctdialects, though there is just one common written language and one common standardized spoken form. (These comments apply to romanization in general)
  • ISO 7098 (1991): Based on Hanyu Pinyin.
Taiwan
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Main article:Chinese language romanization in Taiwan
  1. Gwoyeu Romatzyh (GR, 1928–1986, in Taiwan 1945–1986; Taiwan used Japanese Romaji before 1945),
  2. Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II (MPS II, 1986–2002),
  3. Tongyong Pinyin (2002–2008),[19][20] and
  4. Hanyu Pinyin (since January 1, 2009).[21][22]
Singapore
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Main article:Chinese language romanisation in Singapore

Cantonese

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Wu

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See also:Romanization of Wu Chinese

Min Nan or Hokkien

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See also:Comparison of Hokkien writing systems
Teochew
[edit]

Min Dong

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Min Bei

[edit]

Japanese

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Main article:Romanization of Japanese

Romanization (or, more generally,Roman letters) is called "rōmaji" inJapanese. The most common systems are:

  • Hepburn (1867): phonetic transcription to Anglo-American practices, used in geographical names
  • Nihon-shiki (1885): transliteration. Also adopted as (ISO 3602 Strict) in 1989.
  • Kunrei-shiki (1937): phonemic transcription. Also adopted as (ISO 3602).
  • JSL (1987): phonemic transcription. Named after the bookJapanese: The Spoken Language by Eleanor Jorden.
  • ALA-LC: Similar to Modified Hepburn[23]
  • Wāpuro: ("word processor romanization") transliteration. Not strictly a system, but a collection of common practices that enables input of Japanese text.

Korean

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Main article:Romanization of Korean

The following systems are currently the most widely used:

Thai

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Main article:Romanization of Thai

Thai, spoken inThailand and some areas of Laos, Burma and China, is written withits own script, probably descended from mixture of Tai–Laotian andOld Khmer, in theBrahmic family.

Nuosu

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TheNuosu language, spoken in southern China, is written with its own script, theYi script. The only existing romanization system isYYPY (Yi Yu Pin Yin), which represents tone with letters attached to the end of syllables, as Nuosu forbids codas. It does not use diacritics, and as such due to the large phonemic inventory of Nuosu, it requires frequent use of digraphs, including for monophthong vowels.

Tibetan

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TheTibetan script has two official romanization systems:Tibetan Pinyin (forLhasa Tibetan) andRoman Dzongkha (forDzongkha).

Cyrillic

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In English language library catalogues, bibliographies, and most academic publications, theLibrary of Congress transliteration method is used worldwide.

In linguistics,scientific transliteration is used for bothCyrillic andGlagolitic alphabets. This applies toOld Church Slavonic, as well as modernSlavic languages that use these alphabets.

Belarusian

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Main article:Romanization of Belarusian
See also:Belarusian Latin alphabet

Bulgarian

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Main article:Romanization of Bulgarian

A system based onscientific transliteration andISO/R 9:1968 was considered official in Bulgaria since the 1970s. Since the late 1990s, Bulgarian authorities have switched to the so-calledStreamlined System avoiding the use of diacritics and optimized for compatibility with English. This system became mandatory for public use with a law passed in 2009.[26] Where the old system uses <č,š,ž,št,c,j,ă>, the new system uses <ch,sh,zh,sht,ts,y,a>.

The new Bulgarian system was endorsed for official use also by UN in 2012,[27] and byBGN andPCGN in 2013.[28]

Kyrgyz

[edit]
Main article:Romanization of Kyrgyz
[icon]
This section is empty. You can help byadding to it.(June 2015)

Macedonian

[edit]
Main article:Romanization of Macedonian
[icon]
This section is empty. You can help byadding to it.(June 2015)

Russian

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Main article:Romanization of Russian

There is no single universally accepted system of writingRussian using the Latin script—in fact there are a huge number of such systems: some are adjusted for a particular target language (e.g. German or French), some are designed as a librarian's transliteration, some are prescribed for Russian travellers' passports; the transcription of some names is purely traditional. All this has resulted in great reduplication of names. E.g. the name of the Russian composerTchaikovsky may also be written asTchaykovsky,Tchajkovskij,Tchaikowski,Tschaikowski,Czajkowski,Čajkovskij,Čajkovski,Chajkovskij,Çaykovski,Chaykovsky,Chaykovskiy,Chaikovski,Tshaikovski,Tšaikovski,Tsjajkovskij etc. Systems include:

  • BGN/PCGN (1947): Transliteration system (United States Board on Geographic Names & Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use).[29]
  • GOST 16876-71 (1971): A now defunct Soviet transliteration standard. Replaced by GOST 7.79, which is anISO 9 equivalent.
  • United Nations romanization system for geographical names (1987): Based onGOST 16876-71.
  • ISO 9 (1995): Transliteration. From theInternational Organization for Standardization.
  • ALA-LC (1997)[30]
  • "Volapuk" encoding (1990s): Slang term (it is not reallyVolapük) for a writing method that is not truly a transliteration, but used for similar goals (see article).
  • Conventional English transliteration is based to BGN/PCGN, but does not follow a particular standard. Described in detail atRomanization of Russian.
  • Streamlined System[31][32][33][34][35] for the romanization of Russian.
  • Comparative transliteration of Russian[36] in different languages (Western European, Arabic, Georgian, Braille, Morse)


Syriac

[edit]
Main article:Syriac alphabet § Latin alphabet and romanization

The Latin script for Syriac was developed in the 1930s, following the state policy for minority languages of theSoviet Union, with some material published.[37]

Ukrainian

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Main article:Romanization of Ukrainian
See also:Ukrainian Latin alphabet

The 2010 Ukrainian National system has been adopted by the UNGEGN in 2012 and by the BGN/PCGN in 2020. It is also very close to the modified (simplified) ALA-LC system, which has remained unchanged since 1941.

  • ALA-LC[38]
  • ISO 9
  • Ukrainian National transliteration[39]
  • Ukrainian National and BGN/PCGN systems, at the UN Working Group on Romanization Systems[40]
  • Thomas T. Pedersen's comparison of five systems[41]

Overview and summary

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The chart below shows the most common phonemic transcription romanization used for several different alphabets. While it is sufficient for many casual users, there are multiple alternatives used for each alphabet, and many exceptions. For details, consult each of the language sections above. (Hangul characters are broken down intojamo components.)

RomanizedIPAGreekCyrillicAmazighHebrewArabicPersianKatakanaHangulBopomofo
AaAАⴰַ, ֲ, ָَ, اا, آアㅏㄚ
AEai̯/ɛΑΙㅐ
AIaiי ַㄞ
BbΜΠ, ΒБⴱבּﺏ ﺑ ﺒ ﺐﺏ ﺑㅂㄅ
Ck/sΞㄘ
CHʧTΣ̈Чצ׳چㅊㄔ
CHIʨiチ
DdΝΤ, ΔДⴷ, ⴹדﺩ — ﺪ, ﺽ ﺿ ﻀ ﺾدㄷㄉ
DHðΔדֿﺫ — ﺬ
DZʣΤΖЅ
Ee/ɛΕ, ΑΙЭⴻ, ֱ, י ֵֶ, ֵ, י ֶエㅔㄟ
EOʌㅓ
EUɯㅡ
FfΦФⴼפ (or its final form ף )ﻑ ﻓ ﻔ ﻒﻑㄈ
FUɸɯフ
GɡΓΓ, ΓΚ, ΓГⴳ, ⴳⵯגگㄱㄍ
GHɣΓҒⵖגֿ, עֿﻍ ﻏ ﻐ ﻎق غ
HhΗҺⵀ, ⵃח, הﻩ ﻫ ﻬ ﻪ, ﺡ ﺣ ﺤ ﺢه ح ﻫㅎㄏ
HAhaハ
HEheヘ
HIhiヒ
HOhoホ
Ii/ɪΗ, Ι, Υ, ΕΙ, ΟΙИ, Іⵉִ, י ִدِイㅣㄧ
IYijدِي
JʤTZ̈ДЖ, Џⵊג׳ﺝ ﺟ ﺠ ﺞجㅈㄐ
JJʦ͈/ʨ͈ㅉ
KkΚКⴽ, ⴽⵯכּﻙ ﻛ ﻜ ﻚکㅋㄎ
KAkaカ
KEkeケ
KHxXХⵅכ, חֿ (or its final form ך )ﺥ ﺧ ﺨ ﺦخ
KIkiキ
KKk͈ㄲ
KOkoコ
KUkɯク
LlΛЛⵍלﻝ ﻟ ﻠ ﻞلㄹㄌ
MmΜМⵎמ (or its final form ם )ﻡ ﻣ ﻤ ﻢمㅁㄇ
MAmaマ
MEmeメ
MImiミ
MOmoモ
MUmɯム
NnΝНⵏנ (or its final form ן )ﻥ ﻧ ﻨ ﻦنンㄴㄋ
NAnaナ
NEneネ
NGŋㅇ
NIɲiニ
NOnoノ
NUnɯヌ
OoΟ, ΩО, ֳ, וֹֹُاオㅗ
OEøㅚ
PpΠПפּپㅍㄆ
PPp͈ㅃ
PSpsΨ
QqΘⵇקﻕ ﻗ ﻘ ﻖغ قㄑ
RrΡРⵔ, ⵕרﺭ — ﺮرㄹㄖ
RAɾaラ
REɾeレ
RIɾiリ
ROɾoロ
RUɾɯル
SsΣСⵙ, ⵚס, שׂﺱ ﺳ ﺴ ﺲ, ﺹ ﺻ ﺼ ﺺس ث صㅅㄙ
SAsaサ
SEseセ
SHʃΣ̈Шⵛשׁﺵ ﺷ ﺸ ﺶشㄕ
SHCHʃʧЩ
SHIɕiシ
SOsoソ
SSs͈ㅆ
SUsɯス
TtΤТⵜ, ⵟט, תּ, תﺕ ﺗ ﺘ ﺖ, ﻁ ﻃ ﻄ ﻂت طㅌㄊ
TAtaタ
TEteテ
THθΘתֿﺙ ﺛ ﺜ ﺚ
TOtoト
TSʦΤΣЦצ (or its final form ץ )
TSUʦɯツ
TTt͈ㄸ
UuΟΥ, ΥУⵓ, וֻּدُウㅜㄩ
UIɰiㅢ
UWuwدُو
VvBВבو
WwΩⵡו, ווﻭ — ﻮ
WAwaワㅘ
WAEwɛㅙ
WEweヱㅞ
WIy/ɥiヰㅟ
WOwoヲㅝ
Xx/ksΞ, Χㄒ
YjΥ, Ι, ΓΙЙ, Ы, Јⵢיﻱ ﻳ ﻴ ﻲی
YAjaЯヤㅑ
YAEjɛㅒ
YEjeЕ, Єㅖ
YEOjʌㅕ
YIjiЇ
YOjoЁヨㅛ
YUjuЮユㅠ
ZzΖЗⵣ, ⵥזﺯ — ﺰ, ﻅ ﻇ ﻈ ﻆز ظ ذ ضㄗ
ZHʐ/ʒΖ̈Жז׳ژㄓ

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^"Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft".Dmg-web.de. Retrieved2015-07-02.
  2. ^"Standards, Training, Testing, Assessment and Certification".BSI-Global.com.BSI Group. Retrieved2013-04-25.
  3. ^"Arabic"(PDF).Eki.ee. Retrieved2015-07-02.
  4. ^"Qalam: A Convention for Morphological Arabic-Latin-Arabic Transliteration".EServer.org. Archived fromthe original(TXT) on 2009-02-08. Retrieved2015-07-02.
  5. ^"Buckwalter Arabic Transliteration".Qamus.org. Retrieved2013-04-25.
  6. ^Beesley, Ken (2010-11-22)."The Buckwalter Transliteration".Xerox Research Centre Europe. Archived fromthe original on 2002-04-24. Retrieved2013-04-25.
  7. ^"Arabic"(PDF).Library of Congress. Retrieved2015-07-02.
  8. ^"Greek"(PDF).Library of Congress. Retrieved2015-07-02.
  9. ^"The TLG® Beta Code Manual 2004"(PDF).Thesaurus Linguae Graecae.University of California, Irvine. June 23, 2004. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on January 29, 2006.
  10. ^Lefort, Francois; Roubelakis-Angelakis, Kalliopi A."Transliteration scheme ISO 843".biology.uoc.gr.University of Crete. Archived fromthe original on December 10, 2004.
  11. ^"Hebrew"(PDF).Eki.ee. Retrieved2015-07-02.
  12. ^"Hebrew and Yiddish"(PDF).Library of Congress. Retrieved2015-07-02.
  13. ^Gabriel Pradīpaka."Sanskrit 3: comparing transliteration systems".Sanskrit-Sanscrito.com.ar. Archived fromthe original on 2004-03-15. Retrieved2013-04-25.
  14. ^"Hindi"(PDF).Library of Congress. Retrieved2015-07-02.
  15. ^"What is HamariBoli?".HamariBoli. 2011-06-15. Archived fromthe original on 2013-06-01. Retrieved2013-04-25.
  16. ^The News International - Dec 29, 2011Archived June 16, 2013, at theWayback Machine – "Hamari Boli (our language) is perhaps one of the very first serious undertakings to explore, develop and encourage the growth of Roman script in the use of Urdu/Hindi language."
  17. ^"Chinese"(PDF).Library of Congress. Retrieved2015-07-02.
  18. ^"New Chinese Romanization Guidelines".Library of Congress. 1998-11-03. Retrieved2013-04-25.
  19. ^"Tongyong Pinyin the new system for romanization".Taipei Times. 2002-07-11.
  20. ^"Taiwan Authority Concerned Passes Tongyong Pinyin Scheme".People's Daily Online. 2002-07-12.
  21. ^"Hanyu Pinyin to be standard system in 2009".Taipei Times. 2008-09-18.
  22. ^"Gov't to improve English-friendly environment".The China Post. 2008-09-18. Archived fromthe original on 2008-09-19.
  23. ^"Japanese"(PDF).Library of Congress. Retrieved2014-09-28.
  24. ^"Thai"(PDF).Library of Congress. Retrieved2015-07-02.
  25. ^"Belarusian"(PDF).Library of Congress. Retrieved2015-07-02.
  26. ^State Gazette # 19, Sofia, 13 March 2009. (in Bulgarian)
  27. ^"UN Romanization of Bulgarian for Geographical Names (1977)".Eki.ee. Retrieved2015-06-27.
  28. ^"Romanization System for Bulgarian, BGN/PCGN 1952 System"(PDF).National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency - Office of Geomatics. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on December 19, 2007.
  29. ^"Cyrillic Translations".DSpace.Dial.Pipex.com. Archived fromthe original on 2012-07-16. Retrieved2013-04-25.
  30. ^"Russian"(PDF).Library of Congress. Retrieved2015-07-02.
  31. ^Dimiter Dobrev."Транслитерация" [Transliteration].Metodii.com (in Russian). Retrieved2013-04-25.
  32. ^Basic andOptimizedArchived 2016-04-12 at theWayback Machine Romanization of Russian. 2006–2016.
  33. ^L. Ivanov."Streamlined Romanization of Russian Cyrillic".Contrastive Linguistics. XLII (2017) No. 2. pp. 66-73.ISSN 0204-8701
  34. ^Interscript. Streamlined Romanization of Russian Cyrillic (Basic Streamlined System).
  35. ^Interscript. Streamlined Romanization of Russian Cyrillic (Optimized Streamlined System).
  36. ^"Транслитерация русского алфавита" [Transliteration of the Russian alphabet].Russki-mat.net (in Russian). Retrieved2013-04-25.
  37. ^S.P. Brock, "Three Thousand Years of Aramaic literature", in Aram,1:1 (1989)
  38. ^"Ukrainian"(PDF).Library of Congress. Retrieved2015-07-02.
  39. ^"Додаток до рішення № 9".hostmaster.net.ua. Archived fromthe original on March 7, 2005.
  40. ^"Ukrainian"(PDF).Eki.ee. Retrieved2015-07-02.
  41. ^"Ukrainian"(PDF).Transliteration.Eki.ee. Retrieved2015-07-02.

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