The following is a list ofusurpers in theRoman Empire−individuals who unsuccessfully claimed and/or attempted to usurp the throne of a rulingemperor (augustus). The ancient term was "tyrant" (Latin:tyrannus), which had negative connotation in and of itself. Usurpation was common during the whole imperial era; virtually allimperial dynasties rose to power through usurpation and conspiracies. The "imperial office" established byAugustus never defined an stable system of succession, and emperors often had to rely solely on military power to survive.
In theEastern Roman Empire (395–1453), rebellion and usurpation were so notoriously frequent (in the vision of the medieval West, where usurpation was rare) that the modern term "byzantine" became a byword for political intrigue and conspiracy. For usurpation in the Eastern Roman Empire, seeList of Byzantine usurpers.
The following individuals began as usurpers, but became the legitimate emperor either by establishing uncontested control of the empire or by confirmation of their position by theSenate or by the legitimate emperor. Emperors marked inbold are those who managed to secure the throne for themselves; all other emperors, unless noted, were murdered in office.
These last emperors of theWest Empire were all accepted by the Senate but never recognized as colleagues by the Emperor of the East.
All "usurpers" began as rebels, but not all rebels claimed the imperial titles. These early figures rebelled against the emperor, but most likely did not claim the imperial title.
| Coin | Name | Emperor | Tenure | Life details & notes | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| "Pseudo-Agrippa" Clemens | Tiberius (r. 14–37) | AD 16 | Former slave ofAgrippa Postumus, the grandson ofAugustus. Pretended to be him and marched to Rome to claim the throne. | [1] | |
| L. Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus | Claudius (r. 41–54) | AD 42 | Consul in AD 32, appointedlegate ofDalmatia in AD 41. He rebelled with the support ofVinicianus, but was killed within 5 days. | [2] | |
.jpg) | L. Clodius Macer | Nero (r. 54–68) Galba (r. 68–69) | c. May–October AD 68 | Rebelled against Nero and proclaimed himselfpropraetor; continued his revolt after his death, but was put to death by Galba | [3] |
| C. Nymphidius Sabinus | c. June AD 68 | Nero'sPraetorian prefect, plottetto usurp the throne after Nero's suicide, claiming to be the illegitimate son ofCaligula. Killed by thePraetorian Guard as Galba approached Rome. | [4] | ||
| "Pseudo-Nero" | Otho (r. 69) | AD 69 | InAchaia, modernGreece; the first Nero imposter. | [5] | |
| Titus (r. 79–81) | AD 79 | A rebel namedTerentius Maximus who claimed to beNero reborn; supported by theParthians inSyria. | |||
| Domitian (r. 81–96) | AD 88 | An obscure figure; supported by the Parthians. | |||
| L. Antonius Saturninus | Domitian (r. 81–96) | January 89 | Governor ofGermania Superior, started a rebellion inMainz. He was killed byLappius Maximus. | [6] | |
| Coin | Name | Emperor | Tenure | Life details & notes | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| C. Avidius Cassius | Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) | April – July 175 (3 months and 6 days, inSyria) | Suffect consul in 166, governor of Syria. Declared himself emperor upon the rumor that Marcus had died, continued his revolt even upon learning that he was alive. | [7] | |
.jpg) | C. Pescennius Niger | Septimius Severus (r. 193–211) | April 193 – April 194 (1 year, inAntioch) | Governor of Syria and former suffect consul. Proclaimed himself emperor after the murder ofPertinax and the elevation ofJulianus. Killed bySeptimius Severus while attempting to flee toParthia. | [8] |
.jpg) | D. Clodius Albinus | December 195 – 19 February 197 (1 year and 2 months,West) | Governor of Britain and former suffect consul. Proclaimed emperor in April 193, but allied himself withSeptimius Severus, who gave him the title ofcaesar (heir). Rebelled after learning of the appointment ofCaracalla as Severus' newcaesar. Killed at theBattle of Lugdunum. | [9] | |
| Coin | Name | Emperor | Tenure | Life details & notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Verus | Elagabalus (r. 218–222) | c. 218 (Syria) | Senator and commander of theLegio III Gallica; proclaimed emperor inTyre.[10] | |
| Gellius Maximus | Son of a doctor; commander of theLegio IV Scythica.[10] | |||
| Taurinius | Severus Alexander (r. 222–235) | c. 232 (Syria) | Governor in Moesia; mentioned byPolemius Silvius. Probably a descendant of kingAntiochus IV of Commagene andMarcus Antonius.[10] | |
| Seleucus (Gaius) Julius Antonius Seleucus | Former suffect consul; proclaimed emperor against his will. Drowned himself in theEuphrates to avoid punishment.[10] | |||
| Ovinius Camillus | Fictitious usurper of theHistoria Augusta | |||
| Magnus Gaius Petronius Magnus | Maximinus Thrax (r. 235–238) | late 235 (inGermania) | A patritian ex-consul; said to have been hailed emperor after Alexander's murder. Herodian suggests that he was actually incriminated.[11][12][13] | |
| Quartinus (Titus Fulvius) Quartinus | late 235 / early 236[a] (inMesopotamia) | Ex-consul; reluctantly hailed by troops loyal to Alexander. He was later killed by the same man who proclaimed him emperor.[11][15][13] | ||
| Sabinian Marcus Asinius Sabinianus | Gordian III (r. 238–244) | 240 (Africa) | Ex-consul andproconsul of Africa; killed by the governor ofMauretania.[16][17] | |
.jpg) | Pacatian Marcus Fulvius Ru(fus) Jotapianus | Philip the Arab (r. 244–249) | c. 248 / 249 (Danube) | Commander inMoesia orPannonia and a formerconsul; defeated byDecius and killed by his own soldiers shortly after. His rule came on (or shortly after) Rome's 1000th anniversary.[18] |
.jpg) | Jotapian Marcus Fulvius Ru(fus) Jotapianus | c. 249 (Levant) | A member of Near East nobility, perhaps related to the ancient kings ofCommagene, claimed descent fromAlexander the Great. Revolted for several months inSyria andCappadocia in response to the heavy taxation policies ofPriscus, Philip's brother and governor of the East. Like many, Jopatian was eventually killed by his own soldiers.[18][19] | |
 | Silbannacus Mar(cius?) Silbannacus | c. 249 (?) (Gaul?) | Only known for two coins, possibly an usurper in Gaul (or perhaps Rome). According to one view, he may be related toMarcia Otacilia Severa, Philip's wife.[18][20] | |
_(obverse).png) | Sponsianus | c. 249 (??) (Balkans?) | Existence disputed, only known for a few coins found inTransylvania that reuse oldRepublican denarii.[18][21] | |
| Licinian Julius Valens Licinianus | Decius (r. 249–251) | c. 251 | Biefly mentioned byAurelius Victor; fictionalized asValens Senior in theHistoria Augusta. Defeated by the (future emperor)Valerian.[22][23][24] | |
| Priscus Titus Julius Priscus | c. 251 | Governor of Macedonia, proclaimed himself emperor inPhilippopolis during a siege by Goths.[25][24] | ||
 | Uranius Antoninus Lucius Julius Aurelius Sulpicius Severus Uranius Antoninus | Valerian (r. 253–260) | c. 253 / 254 (Syria) | Born asSampsiceramus, initially a priest of the cult ofElagabal, likely a descendant ofElagabalus. Proclaimed emperor after successfully defendingEmesa from the Persian forces ofShapur I; fate unknown.[26][27] Most likely the same "Uranius" said to have revolted againstSeverus Alexander.[10] |
| Ingenuus | Gallienus (r. 253–268) | c. 260 (Pannonia) | Governor of Pannonia, proclaimed inSirmium by the legions ofMoesia after the capture of Valerian, defeated and killed and inMursa.[28] | |
 | Regalianus P(ublius) C(assius) Regalianus | c. 260 (Pannonia) | A native of Dacia, commander inIllyricum. Proclaimed emperor in Moesia but killed shortly after,[29] perhaps by his own troops upon Gallienus' arrival.[30] | |
.jpg) | Macrianus Minor Titus Fulvius Junius Macrianus | c. 260 – 261 (in the East) | Sons ofMacrianus Major, Valerian's quartermaster general, who was proclaimed emperor by the praetorian prefectBalista but refused due to his age and health, instead proclaiming his two sons, bothlegates, as joint emperors andconsuls. They quickly took over most of the East (Egypt, Syria and Asia) while Gallienus fought in the West. Both Macrianus were eventually defeated at Illyricum byAureolus, while Quietus, the younger brother, was sieged byOdaenathus inEmesa with Ballista and killed.[31][32] | |
.jpg) | Quietus Titus Fulvius Junius Quietus | |||
| Valens "Thessalonicus" | c. 261 (Achaia/Macedonia) | Proconsul ofAchaia, probably gained his nickname after defendingThessalonica. Proclaimed emperor during his confrontation againstPiso, one of Macrianus' generals. Valens defeated him, but was killed by his own soldiers shortly after.[33] | ||
| Aemilian II Lucius Mussius Aemilianus "Aegippius" | c. 261 – 262 (Egypt) | A distinguished officer who supported the revolt of Macrianus, claimed imperial power after their deaths, probably to avoid punishment. Defeated byAurelius Theodotus.[34][35] | ||
| Memor | c. 262 (?) | Amauri mentioned byZosimus andPeter the Patrician (c. 550 AD).[36] Likely a follower of Macrianus, he may have never actually claimed imperial power.[37] | ||
| Aureolus (Manius Acilius) Aeolus | 268 (Northern Italy) | Native of Dacia and Gallienus' right hand man. Defeated the usurpersIngenuus (260) andMacrianus (261), but later allied himself withPostumus against Gallienus. He proclaimed himself emperor following Gallienus' death, but was quickly killed by Claudius' troops after surrending to him.[38] | ||
| Thirty Tyrants | Thirty-two pretenders who appear in theHistoria Augusta, most of them fictitious. | |||
Gallic Empire (260–274)[edit]TheGallic Empire wasbreakaway part of the Roman Empire that, unlike most usurper-ran territories, functionedde facto as a separate state from 260 to 274. It had its own capital (Trier), a clear succession of emperors, its ownpair of yearly-elected consuls, and even its own usurpers. At its height, the Empire controlled all Western European provinces:Hispania,Gaul andBritannia. The term "Gallic Empire" and "Gallic Emperor" are modern conventions; its rulers continued to use the standard imperial titulature without changes.[39] | ||||
 | Postumus Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus | Gallienus (r. 253–268) | c. 260 – April/August 269 (about 9 years) | Governor of Germania, proclaimed emperor after a military victory, after which he killed Gallienus' sonSaloninus atCologne. Established a court inTrier, but made no moves against the Emperor in Rome. He was killed by his troops in the aftermath of Laelian's usurpation, as he did not allow them to sack Mainz.[40] |
 | Laelian Ulpius Cornelius Laelianus | Claudius Gothicus (r. 268–270) | mid-269 (Germania, 2 months or less) | General under Postumus, revolted inMainz in February or June 269, possibly in coordination with Claudius's forces, which constantly attacked Southern Germania. He was related to the Hispanic emperorTrajan (r. 98–117), which made him earn support from that region. Laelian was quickly defeated by Postumus;Hispania switched allegiance to Claudius II shortly after.[41] |
.jpg) | Marius Marcus Aurelius Marius | c. 269 (a few months, more than Laelian) | Ablacksmith that was proclaimed emperor in Mainz after Laelian and Postumus' demise, but was killed shortly after. Ancient sources give him a reign of only a couple of days, but this is impossible given the amount of coinage produced during his reign.[42] | |
.jpg) | Victorinus Marcus Piavonius Victorinus | c. 269 – 271 (about 3 years) | Proclaimed emperor after Marius' death with the support of his motherVictoria, a wealthy noblewoman who probably contributed to the fall of Postumus. Failed to maintain Hispania and faced revolts in central Germania. Killed by one of his officers, whose wife Victorinus had supposedly seduced.[43] | |
.JPG) | Domitian II Domitianus | Aurelian (r. 270–275) | c. 271 (very shortly) | Obscure figure that briefly rebelled in Gaul, perhaps against Victorinus.[44] |
.jpg) | Tetricus Gaius Esuvius Tetricus | c. 271 – 274 (about 3 years) | Governor ofAquitania; proclaimed emperor atBordeaux with the support ofVictoria. He surrendered toAurelian after theBattle of Châlons, although Tetricus appears to have been secretly arranged his abdication with the Emperor, who pardon him and appointed him as governor ofLucania (Southern Italy).[45] | |
.jpg) | Tetricus II Gaius Esuvius Tetricus | c. 273 – 274 (caesar under Tetricus I) | Young son of Tetricus, almost nothing known except that he lived on to have a distinguished senatorial career. There is some debate on whether he was proclaimedaugustus on the final weeks on the Gallic empire, as the evidence (coins) for this are rare and of disputed authenticity.[45] | |
| Faustinus | 274 | Governor ofGallia Belgica, rebelled against Tetricus, who was forced to askAurelian for help. Not known if he actually claimed the imperial title.[46] | ||
Palmyrene Empire (271–273)[edit]ThePalmyrene Empire was a short-livedbreakaway state centered around the city ofPalmyra. It encompassed theRoman provinces ofSyria Palaestina,Arabia Petraea, andEgypt, as well as large parts ofAsia Minor. Chaos consumed the East following the capture ofValerian and the revolts ofMacrianus, but the territories were eventually pacified byOdaenathus, who was namedDux Romanorum ("leader of the Romans") andCorrector totius orientis (essentially "governor of all the East") byGallienus, effectively turning the territory into a semi-independent entity. Odaenathus was proclaimed "King of Kings" (rex regum), but remained loyal to the Emperor. He was murdered by his sonHairan in 267, who was in turn killed by his cousinMaeonius. The throne went to Odaenathus' young son Vaballathus, who reigned under the regency of her mother Zenobia.[47] | ||||
.png) | Vaballathus Lucius Julius Aurelius Septimius Vaballathus Athenodorus | Aurelian (r. 270–275) | 272[b] (1 year) | Young son ofZenobia andOdaenathus, succeeded his father asdux,corrector andrex of Palmyra with the addition of the titlesconsul andimperator, although all real power was held by Zenobia.[50] |
.png) | Zenobia | A remarkable and cultured stateswoman; wife of Odaenathus and mother of Vaballathus,de facto ruler of the East since 267, assumed the title ofaugusta in 271/272, after conquering Egypt. She first attempted to rule as a co-equal to Aurelian, with no results. She was spared and retired with his son, later marrying a senator.[51] | ||
| Antiochus | 273 (very briefly) | Son of Zenobia, perhaps still a child. Proclaimed emperor during a revolt against the restored Roman rule in Palmyra. He was spared.[52] | ||
| Septimius | Aurelian (r. 270–275) | c. 271 (Dalmatia) | Killed by his own men. Briefly mentioned byZosimus andVictor.[53] | |
| Urbanus | ??? | Nothing known, only briefly mentioned by Zosimus.[54] | ||
.jpg) | Bonosus | Probus (r. 276–282) | 280 (Germania) | Commanders in Germany, proclaimed emperors atCologne (alternatively, they were proclaimed separately, but soon joined forces). Bonosus committed suicide after facing Probus' army, while Proculus was either killed in battle or executed soon after.[55][56] |
.jpg) | Proculus | |||
 | Saturninus Gaius Julius Sallustius Saturninus Fortunatianus | c. 281 (Egypt) | A formerconsul native of Africa and commander in the East, revolted inAntioch. Hoped to gain recognition by Probus, with no results. He was killed by his own soldiers nearApamea in the ensuing confrontation.[57][55] | |
.png) | Julian of Pannonia Marcus Aurelius Sabinus Julianus | Carinus (r. 283–285) | c. November 284 – c. February 285 (Pannonia, 3 months or less) | Governor ofVenice, revolted in north-eastern Italy after the death ofNumerian, but was quickly defeated nearVerona by Carinus, who used Julian's soldiers to fight the approaching Diocletian.[58] Sometimes treated as two emperors, oneMarcus Aurelius Julianus, in Pannonia, and anotherSabinius Julianus, in Italy.[59] |
| Amandus (rebel) | Diocletian (r. 286–305, East) | 285 (Gaul) | Revolted in Gaul after the death ofCarinus withAelianus; quickly killed byMaximian. Once thought to be an usurper who minted coins in their names.[60] | |
.jpg) | Domitian III Lucius Domitius Domitianus | c. 297 (Egypt) | Proclaimed in Egypt, almost nothing known. Chronology uncertain.[61] | |
 | Aurelius Achilleus | 297–298 (Egypt) | Proclaimed in Egypt, almost nothing known.[62] | |
.jpg) | Carausius Marcus Aurelius Mausaeus Carausius | Maximian (r. 286–305, West) | 286–293 (7 years, inBritain) | Naval commander of humble birth, rebelled and proclaimed himself emperor in Britain (and Northern Gaul) after being sentenced to death for allegedly keeping the booty of the pirates he fought. Murdered by Allectus after a military defeat.[63] |
.jpg) | Allectus | 293–296 (3 years, inBritain) | Killed by thepraetorian prefectAsclepiodotus by orders ofConstantius I.[64] | |
| Coin | Name | Emperor | Tenure | Life details & notes | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Eugenius | Diocletian (r. 286–305, East) | c. 303 (Syria) | Commander inSeleucia, proclaimed emperor by his troops but killed shortly after in Antioch. | [65] | |
.png) | Alexander Lucius Domitius Alexander | Maxentius (r. 306–312, Italy/Africa) | 308 – 311 (3 years,Africa) | Governor of Africa since 303, proclaimed himself emperor after Maxentius' usurpation in Italy, perhaps encouraged by Constantine. Cut grain supply to Rome, which led to riots in Rome that resulted in the deaths of 6000 citizens. Killed by the praetorian prefectRufius Volusianus. | [66] |
.jpg) | Maximian Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus (3rd reign) | mid 310 (a few weeks,Gaul) | Former friend of Diocletian and co-founder of theTetrarchy, abdicated at the instigation of Diocletian in 305, but was re-appointed emperor by his son Maxentius after seizing power in Rome. Forced to abdicate again byConstantine I after a failed attempt to overthrow his son. Rebelled again atArles while Constantine was battling the Franks on the Rhine. He was ultimately betrayed by his daughterFausta (Constantine's wife), and executed by July. | [67] | |
| Calocaerus (?) | Constantine I (r. 324–337) | c. 334 (Cyprus) | Led a revolt in Cyprus, probably not an usurper. | [68] | |
| Silvanus | Constantius II (r. 350–361) | 355 (28 days,Gaul) | Son of themagister militumBonitus. | [69] | |
 | Carausius II (?) | between 354 and 358 (?) | Questioned existence, only known for a few coins with the name "Carausius Caesar". Likely not an actual usurper nor leader. | [70] | |
| Firmus | Valentinian I (r. 364–375, West) | c. 372 – 375 (Africa) | A Moor; likely the same "Firmus" fictionalized in theHistoria Augusta. | [71] | |
| Coin | Name | Emperor | Tenure | Life details & notes | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Marcus | Honorius (r. 395–423) | 406 – 407 (a few months,Britain) | Proclaimed emperor by his troops; killed shortly after by the same troops. | [72] | |
| Gratian | 407 (a few months,Britain) | Proclaimed after the murder of Marcus. Likewise killed by his own troops, who replaced him withConstantine III, who was later recognized by Honorius. | [73] | ||
.jpg) | Maximus | 409 – 411 | Proclaimed by themagister militumGerontius during the rebellion ofConstantine III, becoming the 5th Western emperor in the same the year (with Honorius, Constantine III,Constans andPriscus Attalus). Defeated and spared by the forces of Honorius, who allowed him to retire. May be the same "Maximus" that rebelled in Spain a decade later, only to be paraded and killed. | [74] | |
.jpg) | Jovinus | 411 – 413 (2 years or less,Gaul) | A powerful noble from Gaul, proclaimed emperor with support of the Barbarian kingsGundahar,Goar andAthaulf, as well as the former puppet-emperorAttalus of Rome. However, he lost Athaulf's support after allying himself with his enemySarus the Goth, leading to his downfall at the hands of Honorius' prefectDardanus. | [75] | |
.jpg) | Sebastianus | Brother of Jovinus, made co-emperor about a year after his brother's rebellion. Killed byAthaulf shortly before Jovinus' capture and execution. | [76] | ||
| Heraclianus | c. June 412 – 7 March 413 (8 months or more,Gaul?) | The general that killedStilicho, the power behind the throne, and defeated the usurperPriscus Attalus. Killed during his invasion of Italy. | [77] | ||
 | Priscus Attalus (2nd reign) | 414 – 415 (1 year or less,Gaul) | Former senator and puppet-emperor at Rome (409–410), a brief usurpation supported by kingAlaric. His successorAthaulf attempted the same, proclaiming Attalus emperor a second time, but this ended with the same result. Remarkably, he was spared by Honorius, who only cut his thumbs and forefingers. | [78] | |
| Name | Emperor | Tenure | Life details & notes | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masties | Zeno (r. 474–491, East) | c. 476 – 516+ (over 40 years,Aurès Kingdom) | Berber governor; perhaps awarded the title ofdux as a child, as he claimed to hold the title for at least 67 years. Revolted and assumed the title ofimperator shortly after 476, later claiming to have ruled over the "Romans and Maurians" for 40 years. Dates uncertain. | [79] |
| Anastasius I (r. 491–518, East) | ||||
| Burdunellus | 496 (Hispania) | Referred to as Hispanic "tyrants" in sources; nothing known.Burdunellus means "Little Mule", so it may not even be his real name. | [80] | |
| Peter | 506 (Hispania) |