Festivals in ancient Rome were a very important part ofRoman religious life during both theRepublican andImperial eras, and one of the primary features of theRoman calendar.Feriae ("holidays" in the sense of "holy days"; singular alsoferiae ordies ferialis) were either public(publicae) or private(privatae). State holidays were celebrated by the Roman people and received public funding. Games(ludi), such as theLudi Apollinares, were not technicallyferiae, but the days on which they were celebrated weredies festi, holidays in the modern sense of days off work. Althoughferiae were paid for by the state,ludi were often funded by wealthy individuals.Feriae privatae were holidays celebrated in honor of private individuals or by families.[1] This article deals only with public holidays, including rites celebrated by the state priests of Rome at temples, as well as celebrations by neighborhoods, families, and friends held simultaneously throughout Rome.
Feriae publicae were of three kinds:
Stativae were annual holidays that held a fixed or stable date on the calendar.
Conceptivae were annual holidays that weremoveable feasts (likeEaster on the Christian calendar, orThanksgiving in North America); the date was announced by themagistrates orpriests who were responsible for them.
Imperativae were holidays held "on demand" (from the verbimpero, imperare, "to order, command") when special celebrations or expiations were called for.[2]
One of the most important sources for Roman holidays isOvid'sFasti, an incomplete poem that describes and provides origins for festivals from January to June at the time ofAugustus.
Varro definedferiae as "days instituted for the sake of the gods."[3] Religious rites were performed on theferiae, and public business was suspended. Evenslaves were supposed to be given some form of rest.Cicero says specifically that people who were free should not engage in lawsuits and quarrels, and slaves should get a break from their labours.[4]Agricultural writers recognized that some jobs on a farm might still need to be performed, and specified what these were. Some agricultural tasks not otherwise permitted could be carried out if an expiation were made in advance(piaculum), usually the sacrifice of a puppy.[5] Within the city of Rome, theflamens and the priest known as theRex sacrorum were not allowed even to see work done.
On a practical level, those who "inadvertently" worked could pay a fine or offer up apiaculum, usually a pig. Work considered vital either to the gods or preserving human life was excusable, according to some experts on religious law. Although Romans were required not to work, they were not required to take any religious action unless they were priests or had family rites(sacra gentilicia) to maintain.[6]
Following is a month-by-month list of Roman festivals and games that had a fixed place on the calendar. For some, the date on which they were first established is recorded. A deity's festival often marks the anniversary (dies natalis, "birthday") of the founding of a temple, or a rededication after a major renovation. Festivals not named for deities are thought to be among the oldest on the calendar.[7]
Some religious observances were monthly. The first day of the month was theKalends (or Calends, from which the English word "calendar" derives). Each Kalends was sacred toJuno, and theRegina sacrorum ("Queen of the Rites," a public priestess) marked the day by presiding over a sacrifice to the goddess.[8] Originally a pontiff and theRex sacrorum reported the sighting of thenew moon, and the pontiff announced whether theNones occurred on the 5th or 7th of that month. On the Nones, announcements were made regarding events to take place that month; with the exception of thePoplifugia, no major festivals were held before the Nones, though other ceremonies, such as anniversaries of temple dedications, might be carried out. TheIdes (usually the 13th, or in a few months the 15th) were sacred toJupiter. On each Ides, a white lamb was led along theVia Sacra to theCapitolium for sacrifice to Jupiter.
The list also includes other notable public religious events such as sacrifices and processions that were observed annually but are neitherferiae nordies natales. Unless otherwise noted, the calendar is that ofH.H. Scullard,Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic.
1 (Calends): From 153 BC onward,consuls entered office on this date, accompanied byvota publica (public vows for the wellbeing of the republic and later of the emperor) and the taking ofauspices. Festivals were also held for the imported cult ofAesculapius and for the obscure godVediovis.[9]
24–26: most common dates for theSementivae, aferiae conceptivae of sowing, perhaps also known as the Paganalia as celebrated by thepagi
27:Dies natalis of theTemple of Castor and Pollux, or perhaps marking its rededication (see also July 15);Ludi Castores ("Games of the Castors") celebrated atOstia during the Imperial period
In the archaic Roman calendar, February was the last month of the year. The name derives fromfebrua, "the means of purification, expiatory offerings." It marked a turn of season, with February 5 the official first day of spring bringing the renewal of agricultural activities after winter.[11]
1 (Kalends):Dies natalis for the Temple of Juno Sospita, Mother and Queen;sacra at the Grove ofAlernus, near theTiber at the foot of thePalatine Hill
13–22:Parentalia, a commemoration of ancestors and the dead among families
13: Parentatio, with appeasement of theManes beginning at the 6th hour and ceremonies performed by the chiefVestal; temples were closed, no fires burned on altars, marriages were forbidden, magistrates took off their insignia, until the 21st
21:Feralia, the only public observation of the Parentalia, marked F(dies festus) in some calendars and FP (a designation of uncertain meaning) in others, with dark rites aimed at the gods below(di inferi)
22:Caristia (or Cara Cognatio, "Dear Kindred"), a potluck meal provided by all the family, and shared in a spirit of love and forgiveness
In the old Roman calendar (until perhaps as late as 153 BC), themensis Martius ("Mars' Month") was the first month of the year. It is one of the few months to be named for a god,Mars, whose festivals dominate the month.
1 (Kalends): the original New Year's Day when the sacred fire of Rome was renewed; the dancing armed priesthood of theSalii celebrated theFeriae Marti (holiday for Mars), which was also thedies natalis ("birthday") of Mars; also theMatronalia, in honor ofJuno Lucina, Mars' mother
7: a second festival for Vediovis
9: adies religiosus when the Salii carried the sacred shields(ancilia) around the city again
14: the secondEquirria, aFeriae Marti also called theMamuralia orsacrum Mamurio
15 (Ides):Feriae Iovi, sacred toJove, and also the feast of the year goddessAnna Perenna
19:Quinquatrus, later expanded into a five-day holiday as Quinquatria, aFeriae Marti, but also a feast day forMinerva, possibly because her temple on theAventine Hill was dedicated on this day
24: a day marked QRCF, when theComitia Calata met to sanction wills
25:Hilaria, A two-weeks long festival commemoratingCybele's lamentation (fasting, castigation, taurobolium, festoonment, washing) of the death and rejoicing of at the resurrection of her mortal loverAttis.
21:Dies Romana, a festival linked to thefoundation of Rome.[12] According tolegend,Romulus is said to have founded the city ofRome on April 21,753 BC. From this date, the Roman chronology derived its system, known by theLatin phraseAb Urbe condita, meaning"from the founding of the City", which counted the years from this presumed foundation.
23: the first of two wine festivals (Vinalia), theVinalia Priora for the previous year's wine, held originally for Jupiter and later Venus
25:Robigalia, an agricultural festival involving dog sacrifice
Theferiae conceptivae of this month was theAmbarvalia.
1 (Kalends): Games of Flora continue; sacrifice toMaia; anniversary of the Temple of Bona Dea on the Aventine; rites for theLares Praestites,tutelaries of the city of Rome
3: in the Imperial period, a last celebration for Flora, or the anniversary of one of her temples
9, 11, 13:Lemuria, a festival of the dead with both public and household rites, possibly with a sacrifice toMania on the 11th
14: anniversary of the Temple of Mars Invictus (Mars the Unconquered); a second procession of theArgei[13]
Scullard places theTaurian Games on June 25–26,[14] but other scholars doubt theseludi had a fixed date or recurred on a regular basis.[15]
1 (Kalends): anniversaries of the Temple of Juno Moneta; of the Temple of Mars on theclivus (slope, street) outside thePorta Capena; and possibly of the Temple of theTempestates (storm goddesses); also a festival of the complex goddessCardea or Carna
Until renamed forJulius Caesar, this month was called Quinctilis orQuintilis, originally the fifth month(quint-) when the year began in March. From this point in the calendar forward, the months had numerical designations.
1 (Kalends): a scarcely attested anniversary of a temple to Juno Felicitas
6–13:Ludi Apollinares, games in honour ofApollo, first held in 212 BC as a one-day event (July 13) and established as annual in 208 BC.
6: anniversary of the Temple of Fortuna Muliebris
7 (Nones):Nonae Caprotinae;Ancillarum Feriae (Festival of the Serving Women);[17] sacrifice toConsus by unspecified public priests(sacerdotes publici); also a minor festival to the twoPales
17: anniversary of the Temple of Honos and Virtus; sacrifice toVictory
18: adies ater ("black day," meaning a day of ill omen) marking the defeat of the Romans by theGauls at theBattle of the Allia in 390 BC, leading to the sack of Rome by the Gauls
Until renamed forAugustus Caesar, this month was called Sextilis, originally the sixth month (sext-) when the year began in March.
1 (Kalends): anniversary of the Temple ofSpes (Hope) in theForum Holitorium, with commemorations also for the "two Victories" on the Palatine
3:Supplicia canum ("punishment of the dogs") an unusual dog sacrifice and procession at the temples of Iuventas ("Youth") and Summanus, connected to the Gallic siege
5: public sacrifice(sacrificium publicum) at the Temple ofSalus on the Quirinal
12: sacrifice of a heifer to Hercules Invictus, with a libation from theskyphos of Hercules
13 (Ides): festival of Diana on the Aventine (Nemoralia), with slaves given the day off to attend; other deities honored at their temples includeVortumnus, Fortuna Equestris, Hercules Victor (or Invictus at thePorta Trigemina),Castor and Pollux, theCamenae, and Flora
23:Vulcanalia orFeriae Volcano in honour ofVulcan, along with sacrifices to Maia, theNymphsin campo ("in the field", perhaps theCampus Martius), Ops Opifera, and a Hora
24: sacrifices to Luna on theGraecostasis; and the first of three days when the mysterious ritual pit called themundus was opened
25:Opiconsivia orFeriae Opi in honour of Ops Consivae at theRegia
A rare depiction of Roman men wearing thetoga praetexta and participating in what is probably the Compitalia
The following "moveable feasts" are listed roughly in chronological order.
Compitalia, held sometime between December 17 (the Saturnalia) and January 5; in the later Empire, they were regularly held January 3–5, but Macrobius (5th century AD) still categorized them asconceptivae.[23]
Sementivae, a festival of sowing honoring Tellus and Ceres, placed on January 24–26 by Ovid, who regards theseferiae as the same as Paganalia; Varro may indicate that the two were separate festivals.[24]
Fornacalia, a mid-February baking festival celebrated by thecuriae, the 30 archaic divisions of the Roman people; the date was announced by thecurio maximus and set for eachcuria individually, with a general Fornacalia on February 17 for those who had missed their own or who were uncertain to whichcuria they belonged.
Amburbium, a ceremony to purify the city(urbs) as a whole, perhaps held sometime in February.
Feriae Latinae (Latin Festival), a major and very oldconceptivae in April.
TheRosalia or "Festival of Roses" also had no fixed date, but was technically not one of theferiae conceptivae with a date announced by public priests based on archaic practice.
Festivals were also held in ancient Rome in response to particular events, or for a particular purpose such as to propitiate or show gratitude toward the gods. For example,Livy reports that following the Roman destruction ofAlba Longa in the 7th century BC, and the removal of the Alban populace to Rome, it was reported to have rained stones on theMons Albanus. A Roman deputation was sent to investigate the report, and a further shower of stones was witnessed. The Romans took this to be a sign of the displeasure of the Alban gods, the worship of whom had been abandoned with the evacuation of Alba Longa. Livy goes on to say that the Romans instituted a public festival of nine days, at the instigation either of a 'heavenly voice' heard on the Mons Albanus, or of theharuspices. Livy also says that it became the longstanding practice in Rome that whenever a shower of stones was reported, a festival of nine days would be ordered in response.[25]
Another irregular festival of note is theSecular Games. Over the course of several days there were sacrifices, entertainers, and games hosted by the state, attempting to be the greatest display anyone living had ever seen. These games were intended to be held every 100 years with the purpose of it occurring only once in any individuals lifetime. At one point two cycles of the Secular Games were being held simultaneously, leading there to be people who would in fact witness it twice in their life.
The nounmercatus (pluralmercatūs) means "commerce" or "the market" generally, but it also refers to fairs or markets held immediately after certainludi.Cicero said[26] thatNuma Pompilius, the semi-legendary secondking of Rome, establishedmercatus in conjunction with religious festivals to facilitate trade, since people had already gathered in great numbers. In early times, thesemercatus may have played a role in wholesale trade, but as commerce in Rome became more sophisticated, by the late Republic they seem to have become retail fairs specialized for the holiday market. TheSigillaria attached to theSaturnalia may have been amercatus in this sense. Survivingfasti[27] recordMercatus Apollinares, July 14–19;Mercatus Romani, September 20–23; andMercatus Plebeii, November 18–20. Others may have existed. The English word "fair" derives from Latinferia.[28]
By the outset of the nineteenth century and particularly in response to the carnage of the latter years of the French revolution, the term "Roman holiday" had taken on sinister aspects, implying an event that occasions enjoyment or profit at the expense, or derived from the suffering, of others, as in this passage about a dying gladiator from Lord Byron'sChilde Harold's Pilgrimage:
There were his young barbarians all at play, There was their Dacian mother—he their sire, Butchered to make a Roman holiday."[29]
More benignly, the phrase was used as the title of a romantic movie set in Rome,Roman Holiday.
^H.H. Scullard,Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic (Cornell University Press, 1981), pp. 38–39.
^Scullard,Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic, p. 39.
^Varro,De lingua latina 6.12(dies deorum causa instituti, as cited by Scullard, p. 39, noting also the phrasedis dedicati, "dedicated to the gods," inMacrobius,Saturnalia 1.16.2.
^Cicero,De legibus 2.29, as cited by Scullard, p. 39.
^Cato the Elder,De agricultura 138;Columella 2.21.2; Scullard,Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic, p. 39.
^Scullard,Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic, pp. 39–40.
^Hendrik Wagenvoort, "Initia Cereris," inStudies in Roman Literature, Culture and Religion (Brill, 1956), pp. 163–164.
^Emily A. Hemelrijk, "Women and Sacrifice in the Roman Empire," inRitual Dynamics and Religious Change in the Roman Empire. Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Heidelberg, July 5–7, 2007) (Brill, 2009), pp. 258–259, citingMacrobius,Saturnalia 1.15.19.
^Scullard,Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic, pp. 52–58.
^Scullard,Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic, p. 156.
^John H. Humphrey,Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing (University of California Press, 1986), p. 543; Robert Turcan,The Gods of Ancient Rome (Edinburgh University Press, 2000), p. 82.
^Scullard,Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic, p. 155.
^Scullard,Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic, p. 183.
^Matthew Bunson,A Dictionary of the Roman Empire (Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 246–247; Roland Auguet,Cruelty and Civilization: The Roman Games (Routledge, 1972, 1994) pp. 212–213.
^John Scheid, "To Honour thePrinceps and Venerate the Gods: Public Cult, Neighbourhood Cults, and Imperial Cult in Augustan Rome," translated byJonathan Edmondson, inAugustus (Edinburgh University Press, 2009), pp. 288–290.
Kaczor, Idaliana (2018). “Characteristics of Roman Female Deities”. In:Studia Ceranea: Journal of the Waldemar Ceran Research Centre for the History and Culture of the Mediterranean Area and South-East Europe 8 (December): 23–41.https://doi.org/10.18778/2084-140X.08.02.
