TheRenaissance inRome occupied a period from themid-15th to themid-16th centuries, a period which spawned masters such asMichelangelo andRaphael, who left an indelible mark on Western figurative art. The city had been a magnet for artists wishing to study its classical ruins since the early 15th century. A revived interest in the Classics brought about the first archaeological study of Roman remains by the architectFilippo Brunelleschi and the sculptorDonatello, both Florentines. This inspired a corresponding classicism in painting and sculpture, which manifested itself in the paintings ofMasaccio andUccello.Pisanello and his assistants also frequently took inspiration from ancient remains, but their approach was essentially cataloguing, acquiring a repertoire of models to be exploited later.[1]
In the year 1420,Pope Martin V moved the papal seat back to Rome, ending its longAvignon Papacy or "Babylonian captivity", and thePapal Schism, when several "popes" simultaneously claimed the office. He at once set to work, establishing order and restoring the dilapidated churches, palaces, bridges, and other public structures. For this reconstruction he engaged some famous masters of the Tuscan school, and thus laid the foundation for the Roman Renaissance.[2][3]
Roman Renaissance art remained largely dependent on artists from further north, above allFlorence, until at least the start of the 16th century. Spending by the popes and cardinals considerably increased, tempting many artists to the city.
The 14th century in Rome, with the absence of popes during theAvignon Papacy, was a century of neglect and misery. Rome dropped to its lowest level of population, and those that remained were starving and wretched. Before the return of the papacy, which was repeatedly postponed because of the bad conditions of the city and the lack of control and security, it was first necessary to strengthen the political and doctrinal aspects of the pontiff. When, in 1377,Gregory XI did return to Rome, he found his power more formal than real. It was a city in anarchy because of the struggles between the nobility and the popular faction. There followed four decades of instability, characterized locally by power struggles between the commune and the papacy, and internationally by the greatWestern Schism. It was finallyMartin V of theColonna family who managed to bring order to the city, laying the foundations of its rebirth.[4]
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Pope Martin V was born atGenazzano in 1368. He studied at theUniversity of Perugia, became prothonotary Apostolic underPope Urban VI, and papal auditor and nuncio at various Italian courts underPope Boniface IX. On 12 June 1402 he was made Cardinal Deacon of San Giorgio in Velabro. At theCouncil of Constance he was unanimously elected pope on 11 November 1417, and took the name Martin V in honour ofMartin of Tours, whose feast fell on the day of his election. King Sigismund of Germany tried to induce Martin V to stay in Germany while France begged him to come to Avignon, but, rejecting all offers, he set out for Rome on 16 May 1418. After many detours, primarily to cement relations with the Queen of Naples, Bracco di Montone, and others, he arrived on 28 September 1420.[5]
The first work began on theArchbasilica of Saint John Lateran, which has been badly damaged in 1413. In 1421 the church was enriched by a newCosmatesque floor and the ceiling was repaired, whileGentile da Fabriano received a commission to create a new cycle of frescoes in the right aisle. These were completed byPisanello after his death in 1427. The basilica also received a new monastery, assigned to the Benedictines. The pavement of the basilica and the columns were designed as signature pieces of theColonna family.[3][6]
WhenCosimo de' Medici was exiled from Florence,Donatello returned to Rome, remaining until 1433. The two works that testify to his presence in this city, the Tomb of Giovanni Crivelli at Santa Maria in Aracoeli, and theciborium atSt. Peter's Basilica, bear a strong stamp of classical influence.Brunelleschi also returned several times to find inspiration for what was theRenaissance art.[7] While in Florence,Masaccio, first great Italian painter of theQuattrocento, became friends with Brunelleschi and Donatello, and at their prompting in 1423 travelled to Rome, along with his mentorMasolino. From that point he was freed of allGothic andByzantine influence, as may be seen in hisaltarpiece for the Carmelite Church inPisa. The traces of influences from ancient Roman and Greek art that are present in some of Masaccio's works must also have originated from this trip. Unfortunately, any further innovation was curtailed by Masaccio's premature death at the age of 27.[3][8]
Eugenius IV (Gabriello Condulmaro, or Condulmerio) was born in Venice in 1388, of a wealthy family. He was nephew toPope Gregory XII. His service to Pope Martin V was such that he was elected to the papacy on the first scrutiny. However, his papacy was destined to be a stormy one. In 1434, a revolution, fomented by the pope's enemies, broke out in Rome. Eugene escaped down the Tiber toOstia, where the friendly Florentines were only too happy to receive him. He took up his residence in the Dominican convent ofSanta Maria Novella, and sentVitelleschi, the militant Bishop of Recanati, to restore order in thePapal States. Florence at that time was the centre of literary activity, and clearly influenced theHumanist movement. During his stay in the Tuscan capital, Eugene consecrated theFlorence Cathedral, just then finished by Brunelleschi.[9]
Pope Eugene IV continued in this vein in Rome, commissioning the Florentine Antonio di Pietro Averlino, known asFilarete (1400–1469), to make two bronze doors, (imposts), for theOld St. Peter's Basilica, completed in 1445.[10][11]
In 1443–1445,Leon Battista Alberti, whose many talents truly epitomised the "Renaissance Man", wrote theDescriptio urbis Romae, where he proposed a system for a geometric arrangement of the city centred on theCapitoline Hill. He later became the architectural advisor toPope Nicholas V and was involved in a number of projects at the Vatican. Shortly after they arrived in town,Beato Angelico and FrenchJean Fouquet began a series of frescoes in the Old St. Peter's Basilica, which testifies to the presence of the nascent interest inFlemish painting and the Nordic generally.[12] Although the duration of the pontificate of Eugene IV did not allow for the full implementation of his plans, Rome became a fruitful meeting ground for artists of different schools. This would soon spawn a common style, which for the first time be defined as "Roman".[13]
The collaboration between Alberti andPope Nicholas V gave rise to the first grandiose building projects of Renaissance Rome. The plan for the city focused primarily on five main points:[13]
The intent was to gain a citadel of religion that had its focal point on the Capitoline Hill. The project's aim was to exalt the power of the Church, clearly demonstrating the continuity between the Imperial and Christian Rome.[13] It was to Nicholas V that Alberti dedicated in 1452 the monumental theoretical result of his long study ofVitruvius. This was hisDe re aedificatoria (On the Art of Building), not a restored text of Vitruvius but a wholly new work. It became a bible ofRenaissance architecture, for it incorporated and made advances upon the engineering knowledge of antiquity, and grounded the stylistic principles of classical art into a fully developed aesthetic theory.[14]
Due to the brevity of the pontificate of Pope Nicholas V, all the ambitious projects could not be completed. However, it made artists who shared an interest in the antiquity and charm of the classic ruins converge (especially the Tuscan and Lombard ones). This led to a certain homogeneity of their work.[13]
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A paradigmatic example of the style that developed in that period in architecture isPalazzo Venezia, started in 1455, that incorporating existing buildings. The courtyard of the annexedPalazzetto is taken from Roman elements combined, but without philological rigor. It incorporates the model of theviridarium and is inspired by theColosseum in the overlapped architectural orders, and in thecornice withornament inbrackets. The width of the arches, however, is reduced and simplified so they will not look too impressive compared to the spaces they enclose. In the building itself (built from 1466), there was a more faithful revival of ancient models, which shows a gradually deeper understanding. For example, the hall was once alacunar in concrete (taken fromPantheon or theBasilica of Maxentius) with overlapping orders and partially leaning on the pillars, as in the Colosseum or in theTheatre of Marcellus.[13]
The renewal of the ConstantinianOld St Peter's Basilica was assigned toBernardo Rossellino. The body was expanded with five aisles and longitudinal cross vaults on pillars that were to incorporate the old columns. The apse was rebuilt with the expansion of thetransept, a choir was added, which was the logical continuation of the nave, and also a domed room at the intersection of the transept and choir. This configuration influenced the next plan by Bramante for a total overhaul of the building, which retained what was already built.[15] Work began around 1450, but with the death of the Pope had no further development, and stagnated untilJulius II decided for a complete reconstruction.[16]
The renewal of theApostolic Palace was a first step in the decoration of the private chapel of the Pope, theNiccoline Chapel, byFra Angelico and his assistantBenozzo Gozzoli. The decoration includes stories ofSt. Lawrence andSt. Stephen, which were interpreted by Fra Angelico in a style rich in details, erudite, and where his "Christian humanism" is expressed in its vertices. The scenes are set in majestic architecture, born from the suggestions of ancient Rome and early Christian times, but not slavish, perhaps mindful of the projects that then circulated in the papal court for the restoration of St. Peter. The figures are solid, calm and solemn, the tone was generally more stately, exemplifying the meditative artist.[17]
TheJubilee celebration of 1475 injected revenue that inspired a number of projects and allowed the Pope to draw a large number of artists together. There were various collaborations between artists such as,Vivarini,Bartolomeo di Tommaso,Benedetto Bonfigli,Andrea del Castagno,Piero della Francesca, and perhapsRogier van der Weyden. This wealth of ideas prepared the ground for the synthesis towards the end of the century, and led to the creation of a language properly "Roman".[17]
Pope Sixtus IV created theVatican Library and entrusted it to thehumanistMelozzo da Forlì, the Papal painter. He frescoed one of the emblems of the Roman humanist culture of the time,Pope Sixtus IV Appoints Platina as Prefect of the Vatican Library (1477), in which the pope is portrayed among his relatives in opulent classical architecture. A few years later, underGiuliano della Rovere, Melozzo painted the apse of theBasilica dei Santi Apostoli withAscension of the Apostles between Playing Angels, considered the first example of the view "from down to top".
TheSistine Chapel takes its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who had the old Cappella Magna restored between 1477 and 1480. It was originally to be decorated by artists from Umbria and Marche.[3] But through the intercession ofLorenzo de' Medici, the commission of the wall decoration was instead entrusted to the best Florentine artists of the time,Sandro Botticelli,Pietro Perugino,Pinturicchio,Domenico Ghirlandaio, andCosimo Roselli. They created a series of frescos depicting the Life of Moses and the Life of Christ, offset by papal portraits above andtrompe-l'œil drapery below. The work on the frescoes began in 1481 and was concluded in 1482. This is also the date of the works in marble: the screen, the choir stalls, and the pontifical coat of arms over the entrance door.[18] On 15 August 1483 Sixtus IV celebrated the first mass when the chapel was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary. The Sistine Chapel, now the seat of the most important ceremonies of the papacy, became a point of reference for Renaissance art, setting a milestone for the character developments of the late 15th century.[3]
The last part of this century was dominated by the figure ofPope Alexander VI, from the Spanish familyBorgia. He first turned his attention to the defence of the Eternal City. He changed theMausoleum of Hadrian into a fortress, likewise Torre di Nona, to secure the city from naval attacks. His Via Alessandrina, now calledVia della Conciliazione, remains to the present day the grand approach to St. Peter's. Though a scandalous pope, he was a patron of the arts and sciences, and in his days a new architectural era was initiated in Rome with the coming ofBramante.Raphael,Michelangelo andPinturicchio. He commissioned Pinturicchio to lavishly paint a suite of rooms in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican, which are today known as theBorgia Apartments.[3]
In addition to the structures erected by himself, his memory is associated with the many others built by monarchs and cardinals at his instigation. During his reign, Bramante designed forFerdinand II of Aragon theTempietto diSan Pietro in Montorio, on the traditional site of St. Peter's martyrdom. Bramante built for Cardinal Raffaele Riario thePalazzo della Cancelleria. In 1500, the ambassador of Emperor Maximilian laid the cornerstone of the national church of the Germans,Santa Maria dell'Anima, the French Cardinal Briçonnet erectedTrinità dei Monti, and the SpaniardsSanta Maria in Monserrato degli Spagnoli. To Alexander we owe the beautiful ceiling ofSanta Maria Maggiore, in the decoration of which he employed the first gold brought from America by Columbus.[19]
In 1503Julius II was elected pope after the short reign ofPope Pius III. He was chiefly a soldier, and his fame is greatly due to his re-establishment of the Pontifical States and the deliverance of Italy from its subjection to France. But he also gained a reputation as a patron of the arts. Bramante, Raphael, and Michelangelo contributed some of their greatest masterpieces during his time. He laid the cornerstone of theBasilica of St. Peter on 18 April 1506, and united the Vatican Palace with the Villa Belvedere, engaging Bramante to accomplish theproject. The famous frescoes of Michelangelo in theSistine Chapel and theRaphael Rooms in the Apostolic Palace, the Court of St. Damasus with its loggias, the Via Giulia and Via della Lungara, even thestatue of Moses which graces histomb in the church ofSan Pietro in Vincoli, are lasting witnesses of his great love of art.[20]
TheMedici PopeLeo X was a lover and patron of the arts and sciences, and probably did more than any pope to establish Rome as the centre of European culture. He hadSan Giovanni dei Fiorentini, on theVia Giulia, built, after designs byJacopo Sansovino and pressed forward on the reconstruction of St Peter's Basilica and the Vatican under Raphael andAgostino Chigi.
He encouraged painting in particular, and Raphael benefitted enormously under his patronage. "Everything pertaining to art the pope turns over to Raphael", wrote an ambassador in 1518.[21] He finished the decoration of theStanze begun under Julius II, even referring to Leo X in some of the scenes. He painted theRaphael Cartoons for the tapestries of the Sistine Chapel, which represent scenes from the lives of SaintsPeter andPaul, the most magnificent of them beingSt. Peter's miraculous draught of fishes andSt. Paul preaching in Athens. A third famous enterprise was the decoration of theVatican Loggia done by Raphael's pupils under his direction, and mostly from his designs. The most exquisite of his paintings are theSistine Madonna and theTransfiguration.
Sculpture was not as favored under Leo X as painting, and whileMichelangelo worked on a marble façade for theChurch of San Lorenzo in Florence, he did not finish it. The greatest and most difficult task was the continuation of the new St. Peter's. Bramante remained its chief architect until his death in 1514. Raphael succeeded him, but in his six years of office little was done, much to his regret, through lack of means.
Leo X has spent all the money carefully saved by his predecessor Julius II. He sold indulgences to help pay for it, a mistake which helped lead to theProtestant Reformation.[22] Leo's reign was followed by the brief papacy ofPope Adrian VI, and then that of Leo's cousinPope Clement VII from 1523.
The brutalSack of Rome in 1527, by the troops of theEmperor Charles V, brought the RomanHigh Renaissance to an abrupt end. Some artists were killed, and most of the rest fled to other cities, as did their patrons in theCuria. When artistic activity revived, it was mostly in theMannerist style. The so-calledCounter-Maniera style was a reaction to Mannerist excesses supported by several patrons around the mid-century, with plainer and more naturalist depictions in the spirit of theCounter-Reformation.
Rome once again became a driving centre of art at the end of the century, with the start of theBaroque.