Thearchaeology of Northern Europe studies the prehistory ofScandinavia and the adjacentNorth European Plain, roughly corresponding to the territories of modernSweden,Norway,Denmark,Northern Germany,Poland, theNetherlands andBelgium.

The region entered theMesolithic around the 7th millennium BC. The transition to theNeolithic is characterized by theFunnelbeaker culture in the 4th millennium BC. TheChalcolithic is marked by the arrival of theCorded Ware culture, possibly the first influence in the region ofIndo-European expansion. TheNordic Bronze Age proper began roughly one millennium later, around 1500 BC. The end of the Bronze Age is characterized by cultural contact with the Central EuropeanLa Tène culture (Celts), contributing to the development of theIron Age by the 4th century BC, presumably the locus ofCommon Germanic culture.Northern Europe enters theprotohistorical period in the early centuries AD, with the adoption ofwriting andethnographic accounts byRoman authors.

The following is a refined listing of Northern Europeanarchaeological periods, expanded from the basicthree-age system with finer subdivisions and extension into the modernhistorical period.

During the6th millennium BC, the climate of Scandinavia was generally warmer and more humid than today. The bearers of theNøstvet and Lihult cultures and theKongemose culture were mesolithic hunter-gatherers. The Kongemose culture was replaced by theErtebølle culture, adapting to theclimatic changes and gradually adopting theNeolithic Revolution, transitioning to themegalithic Funnelbeaker culture.

The Pezmog 4 archaeological site along theVychegda River (Komi Republic) was discovered in 1994. Pottery of early comb ware type appears there already at the beginning of the 6th millennium BC.^[1]

Pit–Comb Ware culture appeared in northern Europe as early 4200 BC, and continued untilc. 2000 BC. Some scholars argue that it is associated with the area of the Uralic languages.

During the4th millennium BC, theFunnelbeaker culture expanded into Sweden up toUppland. The Nøstvet and Lihult cultures were succeeded by thePitted Ware culture

Early Indo-European presence likely dates to the early 3rd millennium BC, introducing branches of theCorded Ware culture (such as theBattle Axe Culture), later be followed by theNordic Bronze Age.

This section is an excerpt fromNordic Bronze Age.

The Nordic Bronze Age culture emerged in the period 2000-1750 BC as a continuation of the Late NeolithicDagger period, which is rooted in theBattle Axe culture (the Swedish-NorwegianCorded Ware variant), theSingle Grave Culture (the north German and Danish Corded Ware variant) andBell Beaker culture,^[2][3] as well as from influence that came fromCentral Europe.^[4] This influence most likely came from people similar to those of theÚnětice culture, since they brought customs that were derived from Únětice or from local interpretations of the Únětice culture located in North Western Germany.^[5] The metallurgical influences from Central Europe are especially noticeable.^[6][7] The Bronze Age inScandinavia can be said to begin shortly after 2000 BC with the introduction and use of bronze tools, followed by a more systematic adoption of bronze metalworking technology from 1750 BC.^{[8][9][10][11][12]}

TheTrzciniec culture (2400–1300 BC),Tumulus culture (1600–1200 BC),Urnfield culture (1300–750 BC) andLusatian culture (1200–500 BC) also extended across parts of the North European Plain during the Bronze Age.

Iron metallurgy began to be practised in Scandinavia during the later Bronze Age, from at least the 9th century BC.^[13] Around the 5th century BC, the Nordic Bronze Age was succeeded by the Pre-Roman Iron Age and theJastorf culture. The Nordic Bronze Age is often considered ancestral to theGermanic peoples.^[14]

The tripartite division of the Nordic Iron Age into "Pre-Roman Iron Age", "Roman Iron Age" and "Germanic Iron Age" is due to Swedish archaeologistOscar Montelius.

The Pre-Roman Iron Age (5th/4th–1st centuries BC) was the earliest part of theIron Age in Scandinavia and theNorth European Plain. Succeeding theNordic Bronze Age, theIron Age developed in contact with theHallstatt culture in Central Europe.^[17]

Archaeologists first decided to divide the Iron Age of Northern Europe into distinct pre-Roman andRoman Iron Ages after Emil Vedel unearthed a number of Iron Age artifacts in 1866 on the island ofBornholm.^[18] They did not exhibit the same permeating Roman influence seen in most other artifacts from the early centuries AD, indicating that parts ofnorthern Europe had not yet come into contact with the Romans at the beginning of the Iron Age.

Out of theLate Bronze AgeUrnfield culture of the 12th century BC developed the Early Iron AgeHallstatt culture of Central Europe from the 8th to 6th centuries BC, which was followed by theLa Tène culture of Central Europe (450 BC to 1st century BC). Although the metal iron came into wider use bymetalsmiths in the Mediterranean as far back asc. 1300 BC due to theLate Bronze Age collapse, the Pre-Roman Iron Age of Northern Europe covered the 5th/4th to the 1st centuries BC.

The beginning of the Iron Age was defined by the appearance of large urnfields. A recent study from researchers from theKiel University showed, however, that the first urnfields were established in the 7th century BCE already and thus, in the very late Bronze Age.^[19]

The Iron Age in northern Europe is markedly distinct from the CelticLa Tène culture south of it. The old long-range trading networks south–north between the Mediterranean cultures and Northern Europe had broken down at the end of theNordic Bronze Age and caused a rapid and deep cultural change in Scandinavia. Bronze, which was an imported alloy, suddenly became very scarce; and iron, which was a local natural resource, slowly became more abundant, as the techniques for extracting, smelting and smithing it were acquired from their Central European Celtic neighbours. Iron was extracted frombog iron in peat bogs, and the first iron objects to be fabricated were needles and edged tools such as swords and sickles. The rise of iron use in Scandinavia was slow: bog ore was only abundant in southwesternJutland and it was not until 200–100 BC that iron-working techniques were generally mastered and a productive smithing industry had evolved in the larger settlements. Iron products were also known in Scandinavia during the Bronze Age, but they were a scarce imported material. Similarly, imported bronze continued to be used during the Iron Age in Scandinavia, but it was now much scarcer and mostly used for decoration.^[20]

Funerary practices continued the Bronze Age tradition of burning corpses and placing the remains inurns, a characteristic of the Urnfield culture. During the previous centuries, influences from the Central EuropeanLa Tène culture had spread to Scandinavia from north-western Germany, and there are finds from this period from all the provinces of southern Scandinavia.Archaeologists have found swords, shield bosses, spearheads, scissors, sickles, pincers, knives, needles, buckles, kettles, etc. from this time. Bronze continued to be used fortorcs and kettles, the styles of which were continuous from the Bronze Age. Some of the most prominent finds from the pre-Roman Iron Age in northern Europe are theGundestrup cauldron and theDejbjerg wagons, two four-wheeled wagons of wood with bronze parts.

The cultural change that ended the Nordic Bronze Age was influenced by the expansion of Hallstatt culture from the south and accompanied by a changing climate, which caused a dramatic change in the flora and fauna. In Scandinavia, this period is often called the "Findless Age", due to the lack of archaeological finds. While the archaeological record from Scandinavia is consistent with an initial decline in population, the southern part of the culture, theJastorf culture, was in expansion southwards. It consequently appears that climate change played an important role in this southward expansion into continental Europe. It is debated why cultural innovation spread geographically during this time: whether the new material culture reflects a possibly warlike movement ofGermanic peoples ("demic diffusion") southwards or whether innovations found at the Pre-Roman Iron Age sites represent a more peacefultrans-cultural diffusion. The current view in the Netherlands is that Iron Age innovations, starting with Hallstatt (800 BC), did not involve intrusions and featured a local development from Bronze Age culture.^[21] Another Iron Age nucleus considered to represent a local development is theWessenstedt culture (800–600 BC).

The bearers of this northern Iron Age culture were likely speakers of Germanic languages. The stage of development of this Germanic is not known, althoughProto-Germanic has been proposed. The late phase of this period sees the beginnings of theMigration Period, starting with the invasions of theTeutons and theCimbri until their defeat at theBattle of Aquae Sextiae in 102 BC, presaging the more turbulent Roman Iron Age and Migration Period. Fortified settlements from this period includeTönsberg,Erdenburg andGrotenburg in Germany,Borremose in Denmark andAtuatuca in Belgium.

• 
  Clothing worn by theHuldremose Woman, Denmark, 2nd cent. BC
• 
  Hjortspring boat, Denmark,c. 400 BC[22]
• 
  Gundestrup Caudron, Denmark, 2nd-1st century BC
• 
  Gold torc, Denmark
• 
  Jastorf culture artefacts, northern Germany
• 
  Reconstructed Iron Age house atFunkenburg, Germany,c. 200 BC
• 
  Fortified settlement of theEburones, Germany,c. 50 BC[23]
• 
  Model of Hodde Iron Age village, Denmark, c. 100 BC^[24]
• 
  Reconstruction of fortifications atErdenburg, Germany
• 
  Bronze pectoral,Pomeranian culture, Poland
• 
  'Kronehalsring', Jastorf culture, Denmark
• 
  Gold ornaments, Jastorf culture, Germany

The Roman Iron Age (1–400 AD) is a part of theIron Age. The name comes from the hold that theRoman Empire had begun to exert on theGermanic tribes ofNorthern Europe.

In Scandinavia, there was a great import of goods, such ascoins,vessels,bronze images,glass beakers, enameledbuckles, weapons, etc. Moreover, the style of metal objects and clay vessels was markedly Roman. Objects such as shears and pawns appear for the first time. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, some elements are imported from Germanic tribes that had settled north of theBlack Sea, possibly including therunes.

The oldest knownrunic inscriptions include those found on theVimose comb from Denmark (c. 150 AD), and theHole Runestone from Norway (50 BC--275 AD). Another possible example is theMeldorf fibula from Germany, dating from the first half of the 1st century AD.

There are also manybog bodies from this time inDenmark,Schleswig and southern Sweden. Together with the bodies, there are weapons, household wares and clothes ofwool. The prime burial tradition was cremation, but the third century and thereafter saw an increase in inhumation. Great ships made for rowing have been found from the 4th century inNydam Mose in southern Denmark.

Thecombined population of Denmark, Norway and Sweden in 1 AD is estimated have been approximately 750,000.^[25]

Norway's firstroyal seat was founded atAvaldsnes in c. 200 AD.^[26][27] Another important elite settlement was established at Hove in Norway in 200 AD.^[28] TheGudme Hall complex, a ruling elite residence and cult site, was built in Denmark in the mid-3rd century.^[29][30][31] AtUppåkra in Sweden, the largest Iron Age settlement in Scandinavia developed from c. 200 AD onwards.^[32][33] A wooden temple was built atUppåkra in the 3rd century and continued to be used and rebuilt over 600 years, into the early Viking Age.^[34]Gamla Uppsala in Sweden developed into an important religious, economic and political centre from the 3rd century onwards. Fortified sites include theTroldborg Ring in Denmark, dating from 100-200 AD. Agricultural villages such asVorbasse in Denmark are also known from this period (200-400 AD).^[35]

A number of 'princely graves' of Germanic elites are known from the second half of the Roman Iron Age. These are exceptionally rich burials often marked by elaborate funerary goods like gold jewelry, Roman-made luxury items (such as bronzeware), and high-status weapons. Notable examples include theHoby grave in Denmark, and the graves ofGommern andMarwedel in Germany. These graves reveal strong cultural and economic ties with the Roman Empire, highlighting the social stratification and wealth of Germanic societies during the Roman period.^[36]

Through the 5th and 6th centuries,gold andsilver become more and more common. This time saw the ransack of the Roman Empire by Germanic tribes, from which many Scandinavians returned with gold and silver. A new Iron Age had begun in Northern Europe, the Germanic Iron Age.

• 
  Roman bronze figurine,Öland, Sweden. PossiblyVenus orJuno.^[37]
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  Reconstructed Iron Age hall atVeien, Norway, 1st-2nd century AD^[38]
• 
  Hoby chieftain's grave, Denmark, 1st c. AD^[39]
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  Princely grave ofGommern, Germany, 3rd c. AD^[40][41]
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  Warrior of Kemathen burial reconstruction, Germany
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  Horse bridle and sword scabbards, Germany, 3rd century AD
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  Depiction of a GermanicThing on theColumn of Marcus Aurelius
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  Farm atFeddersen Wierde, north Germany, 1st c. BC–5th c. AD
• 
  Gold jewellery from Västerås, Sweden, 3rd century
• 
  GoldHavor Ring, Sweden, c. 100 AD
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  Gilded Roman helmet fromDeurne, Netherlands, c. 320 AD
• 
  Preserved clothes fromThorsberg moor, Germany, 4th century AD
• 
  Shields fromThorsberg moor, Germany, 3rd century AD
• 
  Swords fromNydam Mose, Denmark, 310 AD
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  Model of a longhouse, Germany^[42]
• 
  Spear withrunic inscription,Kragehul, Denmark, c. 200-500 AD
• 
  Reconstructed houses atVingsted, Denmark, 1st century BC-2nd cent. AD
• 
  Illustration of a homestead farm,Przeworsk culture, Poland, 3rd-4th cent. AD

The Germanic Iron Age is divided into the Early Germanic Iron Age (EGIA) and the late Germanic Iron Age (LGIA). InSweden, the LGIA (550–800) is usually called theVendel era; in Norway and Finland, the Merovinger (Merovingian) Age.^{[citation needed]}

The Germanic Iron Age begins with the fall of theRoman Empire and the rise of theGermanic kingdoms in Western Europe.^[43] It is followed, in Northern Europe andScandinavia, by theViking Age.

During thedecline of the Roman Empire, an abundance of gold flowed into Scandinavia; there are excellent works in gold from this period. Gold was used to makescabbard mountings andbracteates.

After theWestern Roman Empire fell, gold became scarce and Scandinavians began to make objects of gilded bronze, with decorative figures ofinterlacing animals. During the EGIA, decorations tended to be representational; the animal figures were drawn in more basic forms. In the LGIA, artistic styles became more abstract, symbolic, and intricate, including figures withinterlaced shapes and limbs.

The LGIA in the 8th century blends into theViking Age and the proto-historical period, with legendary or semi-legendary oral tradition recorded a few centuries later in theGesta Danorum,heroic legend andsagas, and an incipient tradition of primary written documents in the form ofrunestones.

Important royal or elite centres from this period includeGamla Uppsala andUppåkra in Sweden,^[33]Lejre andTissø in Denmark,^[44] andAvaldsnes andBorg (Lofotr) in Norway.^[45]

• 
  Vendel Period helmet, Sweden, c. 600 AD
• 
  Vendel Period sword, Sweden, 7th century AD
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  Möne Collar fromVästergötland, Sweden, 400-500 AD^[46]
• 
  Goldbracteate fromFunen, Denmark, withrunic inscription toOdin
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  Burial reconstruction, Germany, 420 AD
• 
  Golden Horns of Gallehus, Denmark, 5th century AD
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  Uppåkra temple in Sweden, c. 6th-9th centuries
• 
  Chiefly hall atBorg (Lofotr), Norway, 6th century
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  Model of anAlemannic village atEllwangen, Germany, 7th century
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  Burial mound, Norway, mid-6th century
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  Royal burial mounds atGamla Uppsala, Sweden, 5th-6th century
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  Reconstructed interior of theHall at Lofotr, Norway
• 
  Gold brooch, Denmark
• 
  Ale's Stones, 'stone ship' setting, Sweden, c. 600 AD
• 
  Reconstruction of theKvalsund ship, Norway, 780-800 AD
• Reconstruction ofGamla Uppsala in 650 AD

• Archaeology of Denmark
• List of archaeological periods
• Scandinavian prehistory
• Prehistoric Europe
• Ringwall (German wiki)
• Zakrzów Treasure (Polish wiki)
• Illerup Ådal
• Vimose inscriptions

Notes

Bibliography

• Jørgen Jensen (2002):I begyndelsen, Gyldendal og Politikens Danmarks Historie (Vol. 1),ISBN 87-89068-26-2(in Danish)
• J. Brandt,Jastorf und Latène. Internat. Arch. 66 (2001)
• John Collis,The European Iron Age (London and New York: Routledge) 1997. The European Iron Age set in a broader context that includes the Mediterranean and Anatolia.
• W. Künnemann,Jastorf – Geschichte und Inhalt eines archäologischen Kulturbegriffs, Die Kunde N. F. 46 (1995), 61–122.
• Herwig Wolfram,Die Germanen, Beck (1999).
• Ove Eriksson, B, Sara, O. Cousins, and Hans Henrik Bruun, "Land-use history and fragmentation of traditionally managed grasslands in Scandinavia"Journal of Vegetation Science pp. 743–748 (On-line abstract)
• Schmidt, Karl Horst[in German] (1991). "The Celts and the Ethnogenesis of the Germanic People".Historische Sprachforschung.104 (1).Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht:129–152.JSTOR 40849016.

Media related toArchaeology of Northern Europe at Wikimedia Commons

• Mapping Ancient Germania: Researchers crack the Ptolemy code (Spiegel International 2010)
• Fighting wars, gaining status: on the rise of Germanic elites (Burmeister 2018)

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