Julius Caesarinvaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of theGallic Wars.[3] According to Caesar, theBritons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by theBelgae during theBritish Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the onlyCeltic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown.[4] He received tribute, installed the Celtic kingMandubracius over theTrinovantes, and returned toGaul. Planned invasions underAugustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD,Caligula assembled 200,000 men at theChannel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according toSuetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea.[5] Three years later,Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled kingVerica over theAtrebates.[6] The Romans defeated theCatuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of theFosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects ofBoudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northwards.
The conquest of Britain continued under command ofGnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far asCaledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of theCaledonians, led byCalgacus, at theBattle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated byTacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed.[7] In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain ofc. 2 million, these are very high figures.[8]
Under the 2nd-century emperorsHadrian andAntoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians,Hadrian’s Wall and theAntonine Wall, the first of stone and the second largely of turf. Unsurprisingly the first is the better preserved. Around 197 AD, theSeveran Reforms divided Britain into two provinces:Britannia Superior andBritannia Inferior.[9] In the early fourth century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of avicarius, who administered theDiocese of the Britains, and who was himself under the overall authority of the praetorian prefecture of the Gallic region, based atTrier. A fifth province,Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject tobarbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperialusurpers andimperial pretenders. Thefinal Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formedSub-Roman Britain after that.
Britain was known to theClassical world. TheGreeks, thePhoenicians and theCarthaginians traded forCornishtin in the 4th century BC.[12] The Greeks referred to theCassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe.[13] The Carthaginian sailorHimilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorerPytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.[14]
The first direct Roman contact was whenJulius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest ofGaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast ofKent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with theRoman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeatingBelgic tribes on returning to the continent.[15]
The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king,Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival,Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.[16]
Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he establishedclients and brought Britain into Rome'ssphere of influence.Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable,[17] and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade.Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could.[18] Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain.[19] Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's ownRes Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees.[20] When some ofTiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns inGermany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.[21]
Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: theCatuvellauni, ruled by the descendants ofTasciovanus, and theAtrebates, ruled by the descendants ofCommius.[22] This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, whenCaligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul.[23][24] WhenClaudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler,Verica of the Atrebates.
Conquests under Aulus Plautius, focused on the commercially valuable southeast of Britain
The invasion force in 43 AD was led byAulus Plautius,[25] but it is unclear how manylegions were sent. TheLegio II Augusta, commanded by future emperorVespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part.[26] TheLegio IX Hispana,[27] theXIV Gemina (later styledMartia Victrix) and theXX (later styledValeria Victrix)[28] are known to have served during theBoudican revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because theRoman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. TheIX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it atEboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during theBar Kokhba revolt.[29]
The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperialfreedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing theOcean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed atRichborough inKent; at least part of the force may have landed nearFishbourne, West Sussex.[30]
The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on theriver Medway, the second on theriver Thames. One of their leaders,Togodumnus, was killed, but his brotherCaratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital,Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest,[31]Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories,[32] and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.
British archaeologist Richard Hingley said that theRoman conquest of Britain, beginning withJulius Caesar's expeditions and culminating with the construction ofHadrian's Wall, was a drawn-out process rather than an inevitable or swift victory.[33]
After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is nowWales. TheSilures,Ordovices andDeceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like theBrigantes and theIceni. The Silures were led byCaratacus, and he carried out an effectiveguerrilla campaign against GovernorPublius Ostorius Scapula.[34]
In 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle anddefeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen,Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where adignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husbandVenutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.[35]
OnNero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north asLindum.Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror ofMauretania (modern dayAlgeria andMorocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts withDruidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across theMenai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.
While Paulinus wascampaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership ofBoudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by theTrinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) androuted the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it.[36][37]
Paulinus rode toLondon (then calledLondinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as wasVerulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in theBattle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness.[38][39] During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.[40]
Templeborough Roman fort in South Yorkshire. The reconstruction was created for Rotherham Museums and Galleries.
There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor,Quintus Petillius Cerialis andSextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[41] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all ofSouth Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as thegold mines atDolaucothi.
In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. GovernorGnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historianTacitus, conquered theOrdovices in 78. With theXX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated theCaledonians in 84 at theBattle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland.[42] This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome and awarded the ornaments of a triumph, before returning to continue as governor. By 87 the decision was taken to abandon most of the land north of theCheviot Hills allowing for troops to be moved to other frontiers which were under pressure. Tacitus reports Agricola as feeling bitter about this turn of events.[43]
For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, includingVespasian,Pertinax, andGordian I.
There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that someRoman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on theStanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in theScottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growingRomanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are thewriting tablets from the fort atVindolanda inNorthumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.
Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of thePicts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damagedarmour atTrimontium (at modernNewstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of atribune ofCyrene.Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of theStanegate at theSolway–Tyne isthmus around this time.
A new crisis occurred at the beginning ofHadrian's reign (117): a rising in the north which was suppressed byQuintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity asHadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointedAulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought theLegio VI Victrix legion with him fromGermania Inferior. This replaced the famousLegio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.
In the reign ofAntoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where theAntonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor,Quintus Lollius Urbicus.
The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when theBrigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by GovernorGnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect theVotadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.
During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarilyproblems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers ofhoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, thePicts.
UnderMarcus Aurelius, in 175, an army ofSarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia.[44] In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in whatCassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign ofCommodus.Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate namedPriscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution ofTigidius Perennis, aPraetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowlyequites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.
The future emperorPertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeededCommodus as emperor in 192.
The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, includingSeptimius Severus andClodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title ofCaesar in return for Albinus's support againstPescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.
Albinus crossed toGaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up atLugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by thePicts andScots.
The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor,Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as theMaeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, andLucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sonsCaracalla andGeta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.
Northern campaigns, 208–211
Aninvasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as theRiver Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the titleBritannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with apunitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.
As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province intoBritannia Superior andBritannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming theSaxon Shore Forts.
During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasinginflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-calledGallic Empire was established whenPostumus rebelled againstGallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 whenAurelian reunited the empire.
TheCarausian Revolt led to a short-livedBritannic Empire from 286 to 296.Carausius was aMenapiannaval commander of theBritannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperorMaximian on charges of having abettedFrankish andSaxonpirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, thejunior emperorConstantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port ofGesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer,Allectus.Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet nearSouthampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.[45]
One possible arrangement of the late Roman provinces, withValentia between the wallsAnother possible arrangement, with other possible placements ofValentia noted
In a reform carried out by 312, the Diocese of Britain was divided into four provinces,Maxima Caesariensis,Flavia Caesariensis,Britannia Prima andBritannia Secunda. Thediocese was governed by avicarius, and Britain was part of the Gallic region under the overall authority of apraetorian prefect, based atTrier.[46]
Thevicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese.[47] Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.
Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official, and the governor was stripped of military command, which was handed over to theDux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall, and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.[48]
The tasks of thevicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.
A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesanvicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital toCorinium of theDobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincialrector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed atLindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales aroundDeva (Chester); besideHadrian's Wall aroundLuguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls alongDere Street.
4th century Roman towns and villas4th century: Degree of Romanisation
Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (laterConstantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against thePicts beyondHadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn.[63] Constantius died inYork in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.
In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurperMagnentius, who succeededConstans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in theBattle of Mons Seleucus in 353,Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notaryPaulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into awitch-hunt, which forced thevicariusFlavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, thevicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.
As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from theSaxons in the east and theScoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons,Picts, Scoti andAttacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked.[64] This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or theGreat Conspiracy, was settled byCount Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[65] An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A newDux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.
Another imperial usurper,Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt atSegontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed theEnglish Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against thePicts andScots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube.Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain.Stilicho led a punitive expedition.It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war againstAlaric I.
The traditional view of historians, informed by the work ofMichael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts.[66] Turning over thebasilica atSilchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.[67]
The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such asChedworth,Great Casterton inRutland andHucclecote inGloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story ofSaint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period inVerulamium andCirencester. Some urban centres, for exampleCanterbury,Cirencester,Wroxeter,Winchester andGloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.
Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.
Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure frombarbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointingusurpers, the army chose a soldier,Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated byHonorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. ASaxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by theBritons, and in 409Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to theBagaudae rebellion of theBreton inhabitants ofArmorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed toBruttium orBologna.[68] With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizingRomano-British ideals and conventions. HistorianStuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.[69]
In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited byVortigern to assist in fighting thePicts,Scoti, andDéisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanicauxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled toBrittany (hence its name),Galicia and probablyIreland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is theGroans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal toAetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is theBattle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities ofBath,Cirencester andGloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.
Historians generally reject thehistoricity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.[70]
During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the SouthernNorth Sea and EasternChannel, focusing on the narrowStrait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways.[71][72][73] The most important British ports were London andRichborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain wereBoulogne and the sites ofDomburg andColijnsplaat at the mouth of the riverScheldt.[71][72] During the Late Roman period it is likely that theshore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.[71][74]
Exports to Britain included:coin;pottery, particularly red-glossterra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and easternGaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and theRhine provinces; olive oil from southernSpain inamphorae; wine from Gaul inamphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean andBrittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain inamphorae; lavaquern-stones fromMayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products.[71][72][75][76][77][8] Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.[71][76][77][78]
These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources.[71][78] Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reachedc. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.[71][78]
It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports.[76][8][78][79] Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, fromc. 165 AD onwards.[71] This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: theAntonine Plague and theMarcomannic Wars.[71]
From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century.[71][77][80][81] During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire.[71][77][80] This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.[71][80]
Mineral extraction sites such as theDolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use ofhydraulic mining methods. They are described byPliny the Elder in hisNatural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied byaqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal thebedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked usingfire-setting and the ore removed forcomminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust andgold nuggets collected inriffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed fromc. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.[82]
TheWealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of theMendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (seeGrimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It includedhydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or moreaqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous,upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.[83]
By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.[84]
Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. During the first two centuries of Roman rule, Britain is said to have been hugely reliant on imported pottery, but by the fourth century, it was self-sufficient. This has been cited as an example of economic development, and at least one town,Durobrivae, primarily manufactured pottery.[85] AtWroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from theIron AgeLa Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.[84]
Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of theSenate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by residentgovernors who were members of the Senate and had held theconsulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, agovernor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising thecivitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.
To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, thelegatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by aprocurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.
Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known ascivitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, intocolonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln andmunicipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs.[86] The variouscivitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.[86]
Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of theRoman army and their families and dependents.[87] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century.[87] The capital city ofLondinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people.[88]
Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia,continental Europe, theMiddle East, andNorth Africa.[89] There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe,Roman Syria, theEastern Mediterranean and North Africa.[90][91] In a 2012 study, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.[92][93]
During their occupation of Britain, the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private use. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.[94]
Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories.Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings.[95] The much more numerous category ofvici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.[96]
Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets;civitates are markedC
Thedruids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain,[98] were outlawed byClaudius,[99] and in 61 they vainly defended theirsacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey).[100] Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such asAncasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, likeMars Rigonemetos atNettleham.
The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such assprings remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in thevotive offerings made at thebaths atBath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of theRoman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of aRoman temple toClaudius atCamulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt ofBoudica. By the 3rd century,Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.
Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns fromWest Stow andWillingham Fen.[101]
It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century"word square" has been discovered inMamucium, the Roman settlement ofManchester.[103] It consists of an anagram ofPATER NOSTER carved on a piece ofamphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples ofearly Christianity in Britain.[104] The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement byTertullian,c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ".[105]
Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested atLincoln andSilchester andbaptismal fonts have been found atIcklingham and theSaxon Shore Fort atRichborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts ofColchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery.
TheWater Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and theRoman villas atLullingstone andHinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery atPoundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack ofgrave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.
The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of theCouncil of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council werebishops from thirty-fivesees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York,Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly abishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek.[106]
The existence of a church in the forum courtyard ofLincoln and themartyrium ofSaint Alban on the outskirts of RomanVerulamium are exceptional.[94] Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by SaintsJulius and Aaron ofIsca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313.Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled aheresy by the church authorities —Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome:Pelagius livedc. 354 toc. 420/440.
A letter found on a lead tablet inBath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written inWroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.[107]
The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera),[108] said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs,[109] and the ediblesnailHelix pomatia.[110] There is some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, of the smaller southern mediterranean type. TheEuropean rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after theNorman invasion of 1066.[111] Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas.[112]
During their occupation of Britain the Romans built anextensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply,sanitation andwastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such asLondon (Londinium),Manchester (Mamucium) andYork (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.
Unlike many other areas of theWestern Roman Empire, the current majority language is not aRomance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion wasCommon Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notablyCumbric,Cornish,Breton andWelsh. Examination of these languages suggests some 800 Latin words were incorporated into Common Brittonic (seeBrittonic languages). The current majority language,English, is based on the languages of the Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe from the 5th century onwards.
^TheVerona List actually includes a note that the Diocese of the Britains hadsix provinces, but then lists four.Sextus Rufus listed six provinces, including the highly dubious "province of Orcades" (Orkney Islands). Some scholars[who?] argue that the initial reforms established three provinces: Britannia I, Britannia II, and Britannia Caesariensis, which was subsequently divided into Flavia and Maxima.
^"Nomina Episcoporum, cum Clericis Suis, Quinam, et ex Quibus Provinciis, ad Arelatensem Synodum Convenerint" ["The Names of the Bishops with Their Clerics who Came Together at the Synod of Arles and from which Province They Came"] from theConsilia[51] inThackery[52](in Latin)
^Although Ussher refers the reader to his earlier discussion of the28 Cities of Britain, which notes that "Cair Colun" may refer to either Colchester in Essex or to a settlement inMerionethshire.[56]
^Bede also references aProvincia Lindisi orprouinciae Lindissi, which was a later Saxon territory at the time of theGregorian mission.[62]
^Bowman, Alan K.; Champlin, Edward; Lintott, Andrew (1996).Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 10. Cambridge University Press. p. 228.ISBN978-0-5212-6430-3.
^Herodian,Τῆς μετὰ Μάρκον βασιλείας ἱστορία [History of the Empire from the Death of Marcus] (in Ancient Greek),III, 8, 2. The precise dating is uncertain; the province does not appear to have been divided until the reign ofCaracalla.
^Hingley, Richard (2022).Conquering the ocean: the Roman invasion of Britain. Ancient warfare and civilization. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 17–42.ISBN978-0-19-093741-6.The conquest of this exotic island, however, was a challenge that even Caesar, despite his political and military brilliance, had been unable to achieve.
^Anonymous,Panegyrici Latini, VIII.10;Aurelius Victor.Liber de Caesaribus [Book of Caesars] (in Latin).39.;Eutropius.Breviarium historiae Romanae [Abridgement of Roman History] (in Latin).21–22.;Orosius,Historiae Adversus Paganos [Seven Books of History Against the Pagans] (in Latin),7.25
^Usserius, Jacobus [James Ussher].Britannicarum Ecclesiarum Antiquitates, Quibus Inserta Est Pestiferæ adversus Dei Gratiam a Pelagio Britanno in Ecclesiam Inductæ Hæreseos Historia [Antiquities of the Britannic Churches, into Which Is Inserted a History of the Pestilent Heretics Introduced against the Grace of God by Pelagius the Briton into the Church], Vol. I., Ch. VIII, (Dublin), 1639. Reprinted asThe Whole Works of the Most Rev. James Ussher, D. D. Lord Archbishop of Armagh, and Primate of All Ireland, Vol. V, Ch. VIII, p. 236. Hodges, Smith, & Co. (Dublin), 1864.(in Latin)
^Archaeological evidence of late 4th-century urban collapse is analysed byCleary, Simon Esmonde (2000).The Ending of Roman Britain.; the "de-romanisation" of Britain is the subject of several accounts byRichard Reece, including "Town and country: the end of Roman Britain",World Archaeology12 (1980:77–92) and "The end of the city in Roman Britain", inRich, J., ed. (1992).The City in Antiquity. pp. 136–144.;Loseby (2000), p. 326f makes a strong case for discontinuity of urban life.
^abcFulford, Michael (1996), "Economic hotspots and provincial backwaters: modelling the late Roman economy", in King, Cathy E.; Wigg, David G. (eds.),Coin Finds and Coin Use in the Roman World, Studien zu Fundmünzen der Antike, Berlin: Mann Verlag, pp. 153–177,ISBN978-3-7861-1628-8
^Fulford (1977), pp. 35–84;Fulford, Michael (1978),The interpretation of Britain's late Roman trade: the scope of medieval historical and archaeological analogy, pp. 59–69 indu Plat Taylor & Cleere (1978);Birley (2005), pp. 423–424;Julian,Epistula ad senatum populumque Atheniorum [Letter to the senate of Athens] (in Latin), 279D, 280A, B, C;Libanius,Orations,18.82–83,87;Ammianus Marcellinus,Res Gestae (in Latin),18.2.3–4;Eunapius,Fragmenta Hist. Graecorum [Fragments of Greek History] (in Latin), 12;Zosimus,Historia Nova [New History] (in Latin),3.5.2
^Laurence, Ray (2012).Roman Archaeology for Historians. Routledge. p. 121.
^"The Evidence for Diversity in Roman Britain". Department of Classics and Ancient History. University of Warwick. n.d. p. Scientific Evidence for Black Romans in Britain?. Retrieved15 September 2023.
^Millet (1992), p. 102f, lists 22 "public towns";Gildas,De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae [On the ruin and conquest of Britain] (in Latin),3.2 lists 28; discussion is mooted whether Gildas possessed a written or conventional list (Higham, Nicholas (1991). "Old light on the Dark Age landscape: the description of Britain in thede Excidio Britanniae of Gildas".Journal of Historical Geography (in Latin).17 (4):363–372.doi:10.1016/0305-7488(91)90022-N.).
^Esposito, Alessandra (2016). "A Context for Roman Priestly Regalia: Depositional Practices and Spatial Distribution of Assemblages from Roman Britain". In Mandichs, M. J.; Derrick, T. J.; Sanchez Gonzalez, S.; Savani, G.; Zampieri, E. (eds.).Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal: Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference.Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference. pp. 92–110.doi:10.16995/TRAC2015_92_110.
^Shotter, David (2004) [1993].Romans and Britons in North-West England. Lancaster: Centre for North-West Regional Studies. pp. 129–130.ISBN1-8622-0152-8.
Allen, J. R. L.;Fulford, M.G. (1996). "The distribution of South-East Dorset Black Burnished Category I Pottery in South-West Britain".Britannia.27. Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies:223–281.doi:10.2307/527045.JSTOR527045.S2CID162584757.
Allen, J. R. L.;Fulford, M.G.;Todd, J. A. (2007). "Burnt Kimmeridgian shale at Early Roman Silchester, south-east England, and the Roman Poole-Purbeck complex-agglomerated geomaterials industry".Oxford Journal of Archaeology.26 (2):167–191.doi:10.1111/j.1468-0092.2007.00279.x.
Birley, Anthony R. (2005).The Roman Government of Britain. Oxford University Press.
Blagg, T. F. C.; King, Anthony, eds. (1984).Military and Civilian in Roman Britain: Cultural Relationships in a Frontier Province. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.ISBN978-0-8605-4296-4.
Burgers, Alfonso (2001).The Water Supplies and Related Structures of Roman Britain. British Archaeological Reports. Oxford: Archaeopress.ISBN978-1-8417-1189-8.
Burnham, Barry C.; Wacher, J. S. (1990).The 'Small Towns' of Roman Britain. Batsford.ISBN978-0-7134-6175-6.
Cleere, Henry; Crossley, D. (1995). Hodgkinson, Jeremy (ed.).The Iron Industry of the Weald (2nd ed.). Merton Priory Press.ISBN978-1-8989-3704-3.
Collingwood, R. G.; Wright, R. P. (1990).Frere, Sheppard; Tomlin, R.S.O. (eds.).Roman Inscriptions of Britain. Vol. II:Instrumentum Domesticum. Fasc. I. The Military diplomata; metal ingots; tesserae; dies; labels; and lead sealings (in Latin). Stroud.
du Plat Taylor, Joan; Cleere, Henry, eds. (1978).Roman Shipping and Trade: Britain and the Rhine Provinces. London: Council for British Archaeology.ISBN978-0-9003-1262-5.
Esmonde-Cleary, Simon (1989).The Ending of Roman Britain. London: Batsford.ISBN978-0-4152-3898-4.
Going, C. J. (1992). "Economic 'Long Waves' in the Roman Period? A Reconnaissance of the Romano-British Ceramic Evidence".Oxford Journal of Archaeology.11 (1):93–117.doi:10.1111/j.1468-0092.1992.tb00259.x.
Gosden, Chris; Hamerow, Helena; de Jersey, Philip;Lock, Gary, eds. (2007).Communities and Connections: Essays in Honour of Barry Cunliffe. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-1992-3034-1.
Henig, Martin (1995).The Art of Roman Britain. London: Batsford.ISBN978-0-7134-5430-7.
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Monfort, César Carreras; Funari, P. P. A. (1998).Britannia y el Mediterráneo: Estudios Sobre el Abastecimiento de Aceite Bético y africano en Britannia [Britain and the Mediterranean: Studies on the Betic and African oil supply inBritannia] (in Spanish). Barcelona: Publicacions Universitat de Barcelona.ISBN978-8-4475-1950-7.
Morris, Francis (2010).North Sea and Channel Connectivity during the Late Iron Age and Roman Period (175/150 BC – 409 AD). British Archaeological Reports International Series. Oxford: Archaeopress.
Parker, Alan; Palmer, Veronica (1992).The Chronology of British History. Century.ISBN0-7126-5616-2.
Peacock, D. P. S., ed. (1977).Pottery and Early Commerce. Characterization and Trade in Roman and Later Ceramics. London: Academic Press.ISBN978-0-1254-7850-2.
Peacock, D. P. S.; Williams, D. F. (1986).Amphorae in the Roman Economy. London: Longman.ISBN978-0-5820-6555-0.
Pearson, Andrew (2002).The Roman Shore Forts: Coastal Defences of Southern Britain. The History Press.ISBN978-0-7524-1949-7.
Percival, John (1976).The Roman Villa: A Historical Introduction. Batsford Studies in Archaeology. London: Batsford.ISBN978-0-7134-3238-1.
Tyers, Paul (1996b). "Roman amphoras in Britain".Internet Archaeology.1. Council for British Archaeology.doi:10.11141/ia.1.6.
Wacher, John (1995).The Towns of Roman Britain (2nd revised ed.). Routledge.ISBN978-0-7134-7319-3.
Wilson, Peter R.; Price, Jennifer, eds. (2002).Aspects of Industry in Roman Yorkshire and the North. Oxford: Oxbow.ISBN978-1-8421-7078-6.OL8924936M.
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As found in theNotitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed anddioceses established byDiocletian,c. 293. Permanentpraetorian prefectures established after the death ofConstantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates ofRavenna andAfrica established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by thetheme system in c. 640–660, although inAsia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century.
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