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Rock climbing is aclimbing sports discipline that involves ascendingroutes consisting of natural rock in an outdoor environment, or on artificial resinclimbing walls in a mostly indoor environment.[1] Routes are chronicled inguidebooks, and on online databases, with the details of how to climb the route (called thebeta), and who made thefirst ascent (or FA) and the covetedfirst free ascent (or FFA). Climbers will try to ascend a routeonsight, however, a climber can spend years projecting a route before they make aredpoint ascent.
Routes range from a few metres to over a 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) in height, andtraverses can reach 4,500 metres (14,800 ft) in length. They includeslabs,faces,cracks andoverhangs/roofs. Popular rock types are granite (e.g.El Capitan), limestone (e.g.Verdon Gorge), and sandstone (e.g.Saxon Switzerland) but 43 types of climbable rock types have been identified. Artificial indoor climbing walls are popular andcompetition climbing — which takes place on artificial walls — became anOlympic sport in 2020.
Contemporary rock climbing is focused onfree climbing where — unlike withaid climbing — no mechanical aids can be used to assist with upward momentum. Free-climbing includes the discipline ofbouldering on short 5-metre (16 ft) routes, ofsingle-pitch climbing on up to 60–70-metre (200–230 ft) routes, and ofmulti-pitch climbing — andbig wall climbing — on routes of up to 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). Free-climbing can be done asfree solo climbing with noclimbing protection whatsoever, or aslead climbing that uses either removable temporary protection (calledtraditional climbing), or permanently fixed bolted protection (calledsport climbing).
The evolution intechnical milestones in rock climbing is tied to the development inrock-climbing equipment (e.g.rubber shoes,spring-loaded camming devices, andcampus boards) and ofrock-climbing technique (e.g. jamming, crimping, and smearing). The most dominantgrading systems worldwide are the 'French numerical' and 'American YDS' systems for lead climbing, and the V-grade and the Font-grade for bouldering. As of January 2025, the hardest lead climbing grade is9c (5.15d), and the hardest bouldering grade isV17 (9A).
The main types of rock climbing can trace their origins to late 19th-century Europe, with bouldering inFontainebleau, big wall climbing in theDolomites, and single-pitch climbing in both theLake District and inSaxony. Climbing ethics initially focused on "fair means" and the transition from aid climbing to free climbing and latterly toclean climbing; the use of bolted protection on outdoor routes is a source of ongoing debate in climbing. The sport's profile was increased when lead climbing, bouldering, andspeed climbing became medal events in the Summer Olympics, and with the popularity of films such asFree Solo andThe Dawn Wall.
A key concept in many types of rock climbing is that of the 'lead climbing pair'. One member — the 'lead climber' — will try to climb the route and overcome its challenges with a rope attached to their harness. The other member — the 'belayer' (or 'second') — will remain standing at the base of the route but controlling the other end of the rope, which is calledbelaying.[2][3] The 'belayer' uses a mechanicalbelay device to attach the rope to their harness from which they can 'pay-out' the rope as the 'lead climber' ascends but with which they can lock the rope if the 'lead climber' falls. Once the 'lead climber' reaches the top, they create ananchor from which they can act as the 'belayer' (but from above), controlling the rope while the 'second' ascends.[2][3]
Another key concept is that ofclimbing protection (or 'gear' or 'rack'). Early 20th-century rock climbers relied on the 'lead climber' looping the rope around natural spikes of rock as they ascended. If they fell, and the 'belayer' held the rope fast — which they would have to do manually by looping the rope around their waist — the 'lead climber' would hang from the rope if it had stayed looped around a spike of rock — if it didn't, they fell to the ground. Modern rock climbers use mechanical protection devices placed along the route, into which the 'lead climber' clips the rope as they ascend; if they fall, the 'belayer' will lock the rope, and the 'lead climber' will fall until they hang from the last 'protection device' that they had clipped the rope into. This protection can be removable (which is known astraditional climbing), or permanently fixed into the rock (which is known assport climbing).[2][3]
If the 'lead climber' falls, the 'belayer' will immediately lock the rope using their belay device, and the 'lead climber' will fall twice the distance that they are above their last piece of climbing protection. If this piece of climbing protection fails — a major risk of traditional climbing — and rips away from the rock, they will keep falling until their next piece of protection holds the rope (azipper fall is where several pieces fail). On some routes, the opportunities for placing protection are poor so that the 'lead climber' is forced to leave large gaps between protection points — called arunout — so that any fall will be large (called awhipper). The wide variety of types of rock climbing offers safe ways for beginners to access the sport before learning to lead climb, includingtop roping andbouldering, and many will try leading on sport-routes first before attempting traditional-routes.[2][3]
Finally, while rock climbing mostly involves ascending a route, climbers sometimes need to be able to descend a route — either in retreat (e.g.self-rescue climbing) or because they have completed it and there is no other way down. This requires the technique ofabseiling (or rappelling in North America), where climbers useabseil devices to move down afixed rope that has beenanchored to a point at the top of the route.[4]
Climbing routes can range from just a few metres in height to over 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). The higher the route, the greater the danger and the greater range of techniques and equipment needed, however, the technical difficulty of a route is not correlated to its height.[5] Climbers have spent as many years trying to ascend 4-metre (13 ft) routes such asBurden of Dreams,[6][7] as they have on 1,000-metre (3,300 ft) routes likeThe Nose.[8] Rock climbing routes at high-altitude, such as on big wall routes likeEternal Flame on theTrango Towers, present additional physical challenges.[9][10]Traversing routes, by their horizontal nature, can extend to great distances,[11] and the world's longest rock climb is the 4,500-metre (14,800 ft)El Capitan Girdle Traverse onEl Capitan.[12]
Famous routes have been created on almost every climbable rock type, and particularly so ongranite, which is noted for its grip and large cracks (e.g.El Capitan,Joshua Tree orSquamish), onlimestone, which is known for its detailed holds and cracks (e.gMalham Cove,Céüse, and theVerdon Gorge), and on sandstone, which can have sculpted features (e.g.Indian Creek,Saxon Switzerland,Rocklands, andFontainebleau).[13] However, climbing areas have been identified on over 43 climbable rock types including ongritstone (e.g.Stanage Edge), onslate (e.g.Dinorwic quarry), ondolorite (e.g.Fair Head), on iron rock (e.g.Hueco Tanks), ongneiss (e.g.Magic Wood [fr]), ondolomite (e.g.Tri Cime), onmonzonite (e.g.,The Buttermilks), and onquartzite (e.g.Mount Arapiles).[14]
Climbers also differentiate routes by challenges encountered and thetechniques required to overcome them.[5] Some of the earliest rock climbs were smooth off-vertical 'slab climbs' where balance and shoe grip (or 'smearing') were key;[5] famous modern examples includeIndian Face in the UK.[15][16] Climbers then acquired the techniques to ascend near-vertical 'crack climbs' by 'laybacking', 'bridging', and 'jamming';[5] famous examples includeSuper Crack,The Phoenix andGrand Illusion (all in the US).[17][18] Climbers then took on blank vertical 'face climbs' by 'crimping' and 'edging' on tiny holds, which required bolts drilled into the rock for their climbing protection;[5] famous face routes includeThe Face [de] andWallstreet [de] (Germany),La Rage de Vivre andSuper Plafond (France), andTo Bolt or Not to Be andJust Do It (the US).[18] Eventually, they migrated to routes that were also severely and continuallyoverhanging and which required 'dynos' (or jumps) to reach holds;[5] famous examples includeAction Directe (Germany),Realization/Biographie (France),La Rambla (Spain),Jumbo Love (the US),La Dura Dura (Spain) andSilence (Norway).[17][18]
In 1964, a new artificial indoor climbing wall built in a corridor ofLeeds University began to produce climbers who, after exclusively training as students on the wall, could climb some of the hardest routes in Britain when they ventured into the outdoor environment.[19] This led to an explosion in indoor climbing that was further amplified by the rise of bolted sport climbing and of bouldering, which are also suited to indoor climbing.[20]
Modern indoor climbing walls and gyms include artificial versions of almost every type of obstacle andclimbing hold encountered in the natural environment.[20] Artificial walls include novel features such asvolume holds andsloper holds, which indoorroute setters use to challenge climbers in very specific and unusual ways.[20] As mostcompetition climbing events are held on indoor walls, many contemporary climbers have spent their careers training and competing on artificial indoor walls.[20] This revolution in the design of indoor climbing holds has affected how climbers now approach outdoor routes.[21]
Modern indoor walls can have their routes graded for technical difficulty in the same manner as outdoor natural routes. TheMoonBoard climbing wall has a 'grid' of 200 climbing holds that can be climbed in over 50,000 sequences, with sequences created and graded by an online community.[22] Even the2024 Olympic artificial climbing walls were graded with the women's walls at up to5.14c (8c+) for lead andV12 (8A+) for bouldering, and the men's walls at up to5.14d (9a) for lead andV14 (8B+) for bouldering.[23] Artificial walls have been created that have been estimated to be at or above the hardest technical grades climbed in the outdoor natural environment.[24]
The ever-growing volume and range of new rock climbing routes are recorded via specialist diagrams calledtopos, which are collated inclimbing guidebooks and more latterly on large online rock climbing databases such astheCrag.com andMountainProject.com.[25][26] Guidebooks and databases record thelocal consensus view on the level of difficulty of the routes, however, where this is materially lower than theactual difficulty of the routes, it is termedsandbagging.[27][28]
The individual moves needed to complete a given rock climbing route are called thebeta, and popular rock climbing routes have detailed step-by-step video guides of their beta available online,[29] and which has led to legal disputes over the ownership of the beta information between online databases.[30]
Important new first ascents are also chronicled and discussed in specialist rock climbing media, including climbing magazines and climbing journals with notable examples includingAlpinist,[31] andClimbing, which are read globally.[32] These are supplemented by popular online climbing websites such asUK Climbing andPlanetMountain,[33] as well as country-level specialist rock climbing magazines such asDesnivel (in Spanish),Grimper [fr] (in French) andKlettern [de] (in German).[34]
The sport of rock climbing includes a wide range of types and disciplines that vary with the style being adopted on the specificclimbing route, the length and number ofpitches of the route, the level and type ofclimbing protection that will be employed on the route, and whether the climb is in acompetition climbing format.[5]
A climb can involve a combination of several types depending on the skill and risk appetite of the climber(s).[5] For example, the famous neighbouringEl Capitan routes ofThe Nose andFreerider both requirebig wall climbing techniques as they are over 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) high. They can be ascended usingaid climbing (on either all or just on the hardest pitches of the route) or can be fullyfree climbed (The Nose is much harder and only rarely free climbed). As both are not bolted, they requiretraditional climbing protection to be inserted, and while it is most commonly done by pairs usinglead climbing, they have both beenrope solo climbed,simul climbed (particularly for settingspeed climbing records), and onlyFreerider has beenfree solo climbed (see photo).[35][36]
The broad range of types is also helpful in giving novice climbers alternative paths into the sport. Once, the main pathway was starting as a 'belayer' to an outdoor lead climber on a natural climbing route. However, many modern newcomers now start on the safest type, which is bouldering, and some of them never leave bouldering. Whereas outdoor climbing/mountaineering clubs were also an important pathway for instruction, many modern climbers now start by getting lessons at indoor climbing walls — in either bouldering or leading — and some then move on to competition climbing teams and never really appear in the outdoor environment. The wide range of types has helped more people access the sport in the way that best suits them.[5][37]
In rock climbing, the term "style" principally refers to whether the climber used any artificial aid to help them to ascend the climbing route, which is calledaid climbing, or whether they used no aid whatsoever, which is calledfree climbing.[38] Climbers who ascend a new route but using aid have made afirst ascent (or FA), whereas climbers who ascend a new route and do it without aid have made the more covetedfirst free ascent (FFA).[39][40] As a further refinement, some have argued that when free climbing a specific route single-pitch route, 'highball bouldering' is a better "style" than 'traditional climbing', which is itself a better "style" than 'sport climbing'.[38]
A further refinement of "style" is a free climb by a climber who had never seen the route beforehand, and had never been told about its challenges and how to overcome them (called thebeta). If such a climber completes the route on their first attempt it is called anonsight. Where the climber had never seen the route beforehand but had been given beta on it, it is called aflash. A free climb where the climber attempts the route many times before finally ascending it is called aredpoint; mostmajor new FFAs in rock climbing are done as redpoints.[38][41]
In 2021, German climberAlexander Megos expanded that "style" in rock climbing should include a detailed understanding of the conditions in which an ascent was made, saying "It seems like the climbing community is not differentiating at all and rarely mentioning HOW things are climbed". He felt this was a particular concern in bouldering where the use ofknee pads and whether the climb was commenced as a fullsit start (and from what point), can affect the technical difficulty of the climb, and needed to be recorded alongside the ascent of the route itself.[42]
The length of the climbing route materially influences the type of rock-climbing techniques that can be used and the type of rock-climbing equipment that is needed, and it is length that differentiates the three major disciplines of rock climbing which are:[5]
The type ofclimbing protection employed also materially influences the type of rock climbing techniques used on a climbing route, regardless of whether it is single-pitch or multi-pitch (or big wall); protection doesn't apply to bouldering as none is used. The following broad distinctions are made in rock climbing types, which have been split into whether the climber is free climbing.[5]
With the development of the safer form ofsport climbing in the 1980s, lead climbing competitions on bolted artificial climbing walls became popular. In 1988, theUnion Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA) created rules and created theInternational Council for Competition Climbing [de] (ICCC) to regulatecompetition climbing, and in 1998, the ICCC added bouldering andspeed climbing as new events.[70] In 2007, theInternational Federation of Sport Climbing (IFSC) took over the governance of the sport and its two major competitions, the annualClimbing World Cup and the biennialClimbing World Championships;[70] it debuted as a full Olympic-medal sport in 2020:[70]
The rock-climbing equipment needed varies quite significantly with the route that is being undertaken and the type of climbing that is being followed. For example, bouldering needs the least equipment outside ofclimbing shoes,climbing chalk, and optionalcrash pads. Sport climbing addsropes,harnesses,belay devices, andquickdraws to clip into pre-drilledbolts. Traditional climbing adds the need to carry a "rack" of temporary passive and activeprotection devices. Multi-pitch climbing, and the related big wall climbing, adds devices to assist in ascending and descendingfixed ropes. Finally, aid climbing uses unique equipment to assist the climber in their upward movement (e.g.aiders).[72][73][74]
The equipment used in rock climbing can be grouped into the following categories:
The development of rock-climbing techniques was as important as the development of rock-climbing equipment in increasing standards and reaching new grade milestones.[91] Several techniques were particularly notable for their impact on the sport — and on particular types of climbing routes — and are key for any aspiring rock climber to master. The development ofroute setters incompetition climbing, who can artificially fine-tune a route to require the accurate use of specific techniques, has further increased the range of techniques that contemporary rock climbers need to master.[92][93][94]
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Rock-climbing technique is built on having an effective body position and balance to maximize the conservation of energy and thus climb efficiently.[91][95] Where possible, the arms should be kept straight, thus holding the body weight on the joints and not on flexed arm muscles, with the 'climbing' driven by the stronger legs.[92][93]
The hips should be kept close to the wall, which often involves the technique of 'back-stepping', where instead of the climber using their big toe to 'toe-into' a foot-hold, they rotate their hips and use the outside edge of their opposite leg; this gives them greater upward reach while keeping their hips close to the rock face.[92][96] Linked to 'back-stepping' is the use of the free leg as a counter-balance to avoid the climber swinging away from the rock, and to support other movements, which is called 'flagging'.[92][93]
Good climbing technique emphasizes the use of the legs to hold body weight and to gain upward momentum, which includes the technique of 'high-stepping' (i.e. lifting the feet above the waistline), which can be combined with 'heel hooking' (see image below), and the technique of 'rock-over' / 'rock-on' weight-transfer movements (i.e. transferring the weight to the higher leg but without explicitly pulling up on the arms).[94][95]
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Early rock climbers began to distinguish themselves from general mountaineeringscrambling techniques by executing a 'layback' (see image) which involves using the legs and arms in opposing forces to ascend cracks in corners or dihedrals.[92][94] Ascending corners naturally leads to the related technique of 'bridging' (also called 'stemming'), which involves spreading the legs to gain traction on the opposing walls of the corner.[92][94] In places where the walls are completely opposing, the technique of bridging becomes the even more spectacular technique of 'chimneying'.[92][94]
Laybacking and bridging enabled rock climbers to ascend dramatic new types of specialist climbing routes that typically combined the corners and cracks needed for these techniques to work.[92] Famous early examples includeJoe Brown'sCenotaph Corner in 1952 inDinas Cromlech in Wales.[97] Notable modern examples of routes that require advanced laybacking and bridging include the much-photographed crux-pitch of the big wall route,Pre-Muir Wall, on El Capitan,[98] and the groove-pitch of the multi-pitch route,The Quarryman, in Wales.[99]
One of the most important revolutions in rock climbing technique was the development of 'jamming'.[95][100] This involves placing — or "jamming" — the climber's body parts into cracks in the rock which they then pull on to gain upward momentum.[92] Jamming brought free climbing to the world of 'crack climbing', and rock climbers developed the technique for almost every body part, including the "body jam" (i.e. the whole body in the crack), the "arm jam", the "hand/fist jam", the "toe jam", and the "finger jam".[92][93]
Jamming techniques were notably employed on the long granite cracks of El Capitan, where they were used to free up important routes such asThe Nose andThe Salathe Wall, as well as on the photographic sandstone 'splitter cracks' of Indian Creek such as on the famous crack climbing route,Supercrack.[95][100]
Finger jamming was also used to open harder routes up very thin cracks on many rock types around the world, and remains an important technique on the world's hardest traditional climbing routes — where cracks are needed to insert the temporary climbing protection — with notable examples such as onCobra Crack (and its famous and painful one-finger jam) and on the micro-cracks ofRhapsody.[95][100]
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'Smearing' involves using the rubber grip of the climbing shoes to gain purchase on a featureless rock face with no edges or holds to step on.[92] The advent of specialist rubber-soled climbing shoes dramatically increased the surfaces that climbers could "smear" on.[93][94] While the technique is used to some degree on almost every type of rock climbing route, it is most associated with 'slab climbing' where the ability to 'smear' is essential because of the smooth and featureless nature of the surface.[92][94]
One of the most notable exponents of the 'smearing' technique is Welch climberJohnny Dawes who used smearing it to create some of the hardest traditional slab climbs in the world such as theIndian Face andThe Quarryman.[101] Dawes is also noted for his unique "no-hands demonstrations" where he climbs extreme-graded rock climbing routes but uses only his feet and the smearing technique for upward momentum.[102]
'Palming' is smearing with the open hands, and is used on smooth holds that cannot be gripped by the fingers, which are called 'slopers'.[92][94] Palming is also often used when 'bridging' and 'chimneying' where the hands are pushing against the rock surfaces.[96]
The extensive use of largevolume holds (also sloper holds) by route setters in competition lead climbing and competition bouldering has also made 'smearing' and 'palming' an important technique for contemporary competition climbers (see photo).[103]
As climbers tried harder and harder routes, the holds became smaller and smaller, until they were barely large enough to accommodate the tips of fingers of the smallest part of a toe. 'Crimping' means holding the fingers in a tight line to hold onto the smallest holds, while 'edging' involves a similar process but with the "edges" of the climbing shoe.[92] A related technique is that of 'pinching' which is used on even smaller holds.[92] Crimping is associated with the development of training tools such as thehangboard that increase the tendon strength needed for crimping; however, it is also a source of tendon injury.[92]
Crimping and edging are most associated with 'face climbing' where there are no big features on which to 'layback' or to 'bridge', and no cracks in which to 'jam'.[94] They can also feature intraversing as was dramatically shown on the crux pitch of the famousDawn Wall route in the film,The Dawn Wall.[104] Many of the hardest modern routes feature painful micro-crimps from which the climber must launch a small "dyno" (i.e. a jump or lunge) to reach the next micro-crimps. Notable examples include the crux of the sport climbing route,La Dura Dura,[105] and the crux of the bouldering problem,Burden of Dreams.[106]
'Hooking' involves using the legs and feet to grab — or "hook" — onto features on the rock.[92] While hooking is a long-standing technique in rock climbing, competition climbers need to be able to master every type of hook including "toe hooks", "heel hooks" and "leg hooks" when trying to overcome the challenges of route setters, who have developed particular challenges on artificial climbing walls that can only be overcome with a precise hooking technique.[93] Hooking is also used in competition climbing to gain a stable resting position, allowing the lactic acid to be shaken from the arms before carrying on.
The 'heel-toe cam' is where a 'heel hook' and a 'toe hook' are used simultaneously to act like a 'jamming' technique (i.e. they keep each other in place by their opposing force), and is a regular requirement in competition lead climbing.[92][93]
The development of modern climbing routes which are typically severely overhanging (or with roofs), and which are now almost the standard in the main competition lead climbing events, has led to greater emphasis and refinement of many more advanced techniques, notable of which are:[91]
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Climbing routes in rock climbing are given a grade that reflects the technical difficulty—and in some cases the risks and commitment level—of the route. Thefirst ascensionist can suggest a grade, but it will be amended to reflect theconsensus view of subsequent ascents, and recorded in online databased or physicalguidebooks. While many countries with a strong tradition of climbing developed their own grading systems, a small number of grading systems have become internationally dominant for each type of climbing, which has contributed to the standardization of grades worldwide.[109]
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For free climbing — in both traditional and sport climbing formats — the most dominant worldwide grading systems are theFrench system (e.g. ... 6b, 6c, 7a, 7b, 7c, ...), and theAmerican system (e.g. ... 5.9, 5.10a, 5.10b, 5.10c, 5.10d, 5.11a, ...).[109][110][111] TheUIAA system (e.g. ... VII, VIII, IX, X, ...) is popular in Germany and central Europe. Above the lowest grades, these three systems can beexactly aligned at each level. For example,Silence is graded 9c (French), 5.15d (American), and XII+ (UIAA).[109][110][111]
For bouldering, the most dominant worldwide grading systems are theFrench Font system (e.g. ... 6B, 6C, 7A, 7B, 7C, ...), and theAmerican V-grade system (e.g. ... V5, V6, V7, V8, V9, ...).[109][112] Above the lowest bouldering grades, the two systems can beexactly aligned at each level, and are often both quoted.[109][112] For example,Dreamtime is graded 8C (on the Font-grade) and V15 (on the V-grade).[113]
It is common, particularly at higher grades, for free climbers to describe the hardest (or crux) moves in terms of their bouldering grades. In 2017,Adam Ondra described the crux ofSilence in the following terms: "Then comes the crux boulder problem, 10 moves of 8C [French boulder]. And when I say 8C boulder problem, I really mean it. ... I reckon just linking 8C [French boulder] into 8B [French boulder] into 7C [French boulder] is a 9b+ [French] sport climb, I'm pretty sure about that".[114]
Following on from this trend,comparison tables have been produced to align bouldering grades with their equivalent technical free climbing grades, where for example, free climbing grades of5.13d (8b) are generally equated with the bouldering grades ofV10 (7C+).[109]
The history of rock climbing is closely related to the evolution ofgrade milestones which have consistently risen as a result of ever-improving climbing techniques and equipment. Grade milestones are chronicled for various types of rock climbing, and are often split by gender.[17] An interesting development in modern rock climbing is that the highest female grade milestones are only one or two levels below the highest male grade milestones in all climbing types, a situation that some scientists have attributed to an evolutionary origin.[115][116]
As of January 2025, the following milestones are recognized (only the first person(s) to achieve the milestone is shown):
In thehistory of rock climbing, the three main sub-disciplines — bouldering, single-pitch climbing, and big wall climbing — trace their origins to late 19th-century Europe.[129] Bouldering started inFontainebleau, and was pioneered byPierre Allain in the 1930s, andJohn Gill in the 1950s.[129][39] Big wall climbing started in theDolomites, and spread across the Alps in the 1930s led byEmilio Comici andRiccardo Cassin, and in the 1950s byWalter Bonatti, before reachingYosemite where it was led in the 1950s to 1970s byRoyal Robbins.[129][8][130] Single-pitch climbing started pre-1900 in both theLake District and inSaxony,[129] and by the 1970s had spread globally led by climbers such asRon Fawcett (Britain),Bernd Arnold (Germany),Patrick Berhault (France),Ron Kauk andJohn Bachar (USA).[131]
Given that it uses noartificial aid orclimbing protection, bouldering remained largely consistent since its origins.[39] Single-pitch climbing stopped using artificial aid in the early 20th century, led byPaul Preuss,[39] and later byKurt Albert, in so-called "free climbing",[131] however, it would not be until the late 1960s and early 1970s that Robbins andYvon Chouinard would bring free climbing to big wall climbing.[8] Mechanical devices that providedclimbing protection only (i.e. they provided no aid in ascending), were needed for single-pitch and big-wall free climbing, and they were inserted into the route while the climber was ascending, which came to be called "traditional climbing".[131]
During the late 1970s and early 1980s, French pioneers likePatrick Edlinger wanted to climb rock faces inBuoux andVerdon that had no cracks in which to insert traditional climbing protection.[131] They pre-drilledbolts into routes as climbing protection (but not as artificial aid to help upward momentum), which became known as "sport climbing".[131] The safer format of sport climbing led to a dramatic increase in climbing standards,technical grades, and training tools (e.g. artificialclimbing walls andcampus boards),[20] the development ofcompetition climbing (initially dominated in the 1990s by French climbers such asFrançois Legrand),[70] and the arrival of the "professional" rock climber.[131]
By the end of the 20th century, the hardest sport climbs were often combinations of 'bouldering moves', and some of the best challenges lay in free climbing extreme big walls; this led to greater cross-over amongst the three sub-disciplines.[131] Pioneers such asWolfgang Güllich,Jerry Moffatt,Alexander Huber,Fred Nicole,Chris Sharma,Adam Ondra, andTommy Caldwell set records in several of these disciplines.[131] Güllich and Huber made ever-boldersingle-pitch free solo climbs, while Sharmapushed standards in deep-water soloing;[131]Alex Honnold's big wall free soloing became theOscar-winning film,Free Solo.[39] In 2016, theIOC announced competition climbing would be a medal event in the2020 Summer Olympics.[39]
Female rock climbing developed later in the 20th century but by the 1980s, climbers such asLynn Hill andCatherine Destivelle were closing the gap to the technical grades that the leading men were climbing.[132] In 1993, Hill made the first free ascent ofThe Nose onEl Capitan, one of the most sought-after big wall climbing prizes that had resisted all prior attempts.[8][132] By the 21st century,Josune Bereziartu,Angela Eiter andAshima Shiraishi, had closed the gap to the highest sport and boulder climbing grades achieved by men to within one-two notches;[116][133]Beth Rodden fully closed the gap for traditional climbing grades by freeingMeltdown, andJanja Garnbret became the most successful competition climber inhistory.[132]
There have been many debates in rock climbing on "ethical issues", particularly around what is fair sporting conduct (e.g. the use of aid or "fair means" climbing, the use of bolts in sport climbing, and the use of "chipping" to manufacture holds), and what is appropriate for the protection of the environment (e.g. the switch to clean aid "hammerless" climbing and the greater awareness of the adverse effect of climbing on the environment).[134][135]
One of the earliest ethical debates in rock climbing was around the transition from aid climbing to free climbing.[39] In 1911, Austrian climberPaul Preuss started what became known as theMauerhakenstreit (or "piton dispute"), by advocating for a transition to "free climbing" via a series of essays and articles in theGerman Alpine Journal where he defined "artificial aid" and proposed 6 rules of free climbing including the important rule 4: "The piton is an emergency aid and not the basis of a system of mountaineering".[39][130] In 1913, German climberRudolf Fehrmann published the second edition ofDer Bergsteiger in der Sächsischen Schweiz (orThe Climber inSaxon Switzerland), which included the first binding rulesfor climbing in the area to protect the soft sandstone rock. The rules said that only natural holds were allowed, and these "rules for free climbing" are in still use today.[129]
The arrival of steelpitons after World War 2, ushered in a golden age of big wall aid climbing on the granite cracks of Yosemite (the cracks were still too difficult to be free-climbed).[8][136] In 1958, a team led byWarren Harding made the coveted first ascent ofThe Nose onEl Capitan hammering in 600 pitons and 125 bolts into the route over 47 days; while the ascent got worldwide recognition it was controversial due to the excessive use of aid and hammering.[8][137] A famous essay in 1972 by big wall pioneersYvon Chouinard andTom Frost, called for and end to hammer (and piton) intensive aid climbing and a switch to hammerless "clean climbing" techniques, which was adopted.[138][139]
Since the widespread introduction of bolted sport climbing routes in the 1980s, there has been a debate in the climbing world on their use in providing protection (sport climbing bolts do not provide any aid in upward momentum),[140] as they can alter the challenge and risk of a climbing route.[141] A famous essay from 1971 by Italian mountaineerReinhold Messner calledThe Murder of the Impossible (which was believed to have been inspired by the 400-boltCompressor Route), challenged that the use of bolted protection was diminishing the nature of mountaineering, saying of such climbers: "he carries his courage in his rucksack, in the form of bolts and equipment".[141]
During the 1980s and 1990s in the US, this debate became so heated that it was known as the "bolt wars", with climbersbolt chopping (i.e. removing in-situ protection) on routes they considered to be traditional-only routes (i.e. no in-situ protection). Bolt chopping still goes on today, however, many climbing areas, with the assistance and support of regulatory bodies, have introduced formal policies regarding bolt use.[140]
The debate also extends to the issue ofretro-bolting traditional-climbing routes, which is installing fixed bolts to make them into safer sport-climbing routes,[142] but which then alters the challenge of the route.[143] Some traditional climbers began to 'greenpoint' established sport climbing routes by chopping their in-situ bolts and re-climbing using traditional protection. Notable examples includeSonnie Trotter's 'greenpoint' ofThe Path atLake Louise.[144][145]
Some climbers have physically altered the rock surface to "construct" a route (or make a route more climbable), by cutting or expanding handholds,[146] which is known aschipping.[147] Such acts have at times caused controversy (e.g.Fred Rouhling'sAkira andHugh), but at other times has not (e.g. famous routes such asAntoine Le Menestrel [fr]'sLa Rose et la Vampire,Jean-Baptiste Tribout'sSuperplafond, andRay Jardine'sThe Phoenix).[148] The free climb of one of the most famous big-wall routes in history,The Nose on El Capitan, relies on a "manufactured"travese that was chipped out of the granite rock by Ray Jardine (and is called "Jardine's Traverse").[149] A 2022 survey byClimbing showed climbers were largely against manufacturing routes on natural outdoor rock on public lands, but were less negative on private lands (or on routes in quarries); they were willing to allow "cleaning" of routes (which some consider manufacturing), and also the repairing of routes (e.g. gluing back broken holds).[147]
The popularity of outdoor rock climbing has led to several debates on its environmental impact. Rock climbers' extensive use of chalk has come under scrutiny, both for concerns around its mining,[150] and its potential toxicity and unsightly bright white color.[151] Rock climbing has been restricted and even prohibited in areas due to concerns about its impact on sensitive breeding wildlife grounds and delicate fauna, and incidences of damage or vandalism to the physical rock and cultural sites.[152] A notable example is inHueco Tanks, one of the most important bouldering locations in the world (and where the V-grading system was invented), where climbing is controlled and limited by park rangers to avoid damage to important cultural sites.[153]
Many developments in rock-climbing equipment such as the introduction of advanced rubber-soled shoes or the use of climbing chalk were met with concerns that they gave unfair aid to the climber. The most recent equipment debate concerned the use ofknee pads which enable the climber to use the 'knee-bar' technique to take rests on the climb.[42] In some cases, the use of such 'knee-bars' (facilitated by knee pads) has reduced the technical grade or difficulty of a route (e.g.Hubble in Britain).[154] In 2021, Czech climberAdam Ondra wrote that the effect of knee pads is no different from the introduction of rubber shoes or climbing chalk and that the changes in the grade are unfortunate from a historical perspective but they are inevitable.[155]
In more recent times, the sport of rock climbing has become recognized for several positive health benefits, including the physical benefits of cardiorespiratory fitness, muscle strength, and balance, but also for a range of mental health benefits including,[156] for memory and problem-solving, combatting depression, improving communication and social integration skills, as well as building self-confidence.[157][158]
The awareness of mental health benefits from climbing had led to the use of "therapeutic climbing" (TC) as a treatment in medicine,[159] and particularly bouldering given its relative safety for beginners.[160] A 2023 review of the academic literature of TC inPM&R concluded that studies "outline its positive effects in various patient groups", and that "TC is a safe and effective treatment for improving physical/mental/social well-being".[161] Some studies have shown that TC could even be as effective ascognitive behavioral therapy for the treatment of depression.[162]
Aside from the obvious physical risks of a fall in rock climbing,[163] climbers are known to experience tendon (particularly on the fingers and arms), and joint (particularly on the knees and shoulders) injuries.[164][165] This frequency and severity of these injuries have been amplified by the used of advancedplyometric training devices such as thecampus board,[166] and by the use of advanced climbing techniques such as the 'drop-knee'.[167]
Climbers have spoken about the prevalence ofeating disorders,[168] particularly in competition climbing as athletes seek to optimize their strength-to-weight ratio.[169] In 2023, one of the most high-profile competition climbers,Janja Garnbret, called it a long-standing "cultural problem".[170][171] In 2024, the IFSC introduced its first explicit policy guidelines to try and combat the issue of eating disorders in competition climbing.[172][173]
Rock climbing is a largely self-governing sport principally relying onsocial sanctioning but where individual country-level associations can act as "representative bodies" for the sport some of which are formally recognized by the State (e.g. theAmerican Alpine Club) and can have an influence on Government policy in areas that interest the sport such as land access.[174][175] Many such country-level rock-climbing associations also represent the related sport ofmountaineering, from which rock-climbing evolved during the 19th and 20th centuries (e.g. theBritish Mountaineering Council). TheUnion Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA) is an important international representative association for mountaineering that also represents rock climbing andice climbing, particularly in the areas of equipment quality standards and competition climbing.[176]
In the late 1980s, the UIAA began to more formally regulate and govern the emerging rock climbing discipline of competition climbing and formed theInternational Council for Competition Climbing [de] (ICCC), which the UIAA later seceded to a new separate body called theInternational Federation of Sport Climbing (IFSC) that regulates competition climbing, including the Olympic sport of climbing (the UIAA still directly regulatescompetition ice climbing).[70] The creation of the ICCC and the IFSC also led to the creation of numerous country-level competition climbing associations, some of which are sub-organizations of longer-standing "representative bodies" (e.g. GB Climbing is a sub-group of the British Mountaineering Council),[177] and some of which are completely independent (e.g.USA Climbing).[178]
In addition to the above international and national representative bodies, specialist groups have been established to represent the interests of rock climbing in particular areas, a notable example beingThe Access Fund, a North American body whose focus is on securing and maintaining access to climbing areas and of promoting responsible and ethical behavior within those areas.[179]
Several notable films have been made that are focused on various types of rock climbing including:[180]
the sport of climbing on rocks or in mountains, or on specially designed walls inside or outdoors
Determining the length of a pitch
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)Bolt Wars
Roughly from 1986 to 1993, Armando Menocal was one of the founders and de facto leader of the nascent Access Fund. It is hard to imagine where climbing would be today without him. He fought for climbers' rights, and though he wasn't a fan of bolts he believed the government shouldn't dictate how or where climbers place them. When government agencies tried to ban bolts, Armando stood in their way.
Statement of Youth: The Birth of British Sport Climbing
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