Robert Higgs
Born	(1944-02-01)February 1, 1944 (age 81) Okemah, Oklahoma, U.S.
Academic background
Doctoral advisor	Edwin Mills H. Louis Stettler
Influences	Kuznets,North,Coase,Schumpeter,Mises,Hayek,Rothbard
Academic work
Discipline	Economic history,political economy, natural resource economics,health economics, military economics
School or tradition	Austrian School
Doctoral students	Price V. Fishback

Robert Higgs (born February 1, 1944) is an American economic historian andeconomist. He is known for research on the growth of the United States government, especially the ratchet effect, the idea that state power expands during wars and other crises and only partly recedes afterward, which he developed inCrisis and Leviathan (1987).^[1][2][3] He is a retired senior fellow in political economy at theIndependent Institute, where he founded and later served as editor at large ofThe Independent Review, and he has held faculty appointments at theUniversity of Washington,Lafayette College, andSeattle University.^[1][4] In an essay he has described his political philosophy as a libertarian anarchism.^[5]

Higgs earned a Ph.D. in economics from theJohns Hopkins University and has held teaching positions at theUniversity of Washington,Lafayette College, andSeattle University.^[1][4] He has also been a visiting scholar atOxford University andStanford University.^[1] He held a visiting professorship at theUniversity of Economics, Prague in 2006,^[6] and has superviseddissertations in the Ph.D. program atUniversidad Francisco Marroquín,^[7] where he is currently an honorary professor of economics and history.

Higgs has been a Senior Fellow inPolitical Economy at theIndependent Institute since September 1994. He has served as editor at large ofThe Independent Review since 2013, after having been editor from 1995 to 2013.^[6][4] Higgs was also the 2015 recipient of theMurray N. Rothbard Medal of Freedom, created by businessman George W. Connell.^[8][9]

In hisCrisis and Leviathan, Higgs first elaborated in detail on his ratchet hypothesis as part of a more general interpretation of governmental growth.^[2][3] Higgs aimed to demonstrate that contemporary models to explain the growth of government did not explain why growth historically occurred in spurts, rather than continuously. Higgs formulated the ratchet effect to explain this phenomenon. He theorized that most government growth occurred in response to real or imagined national "crises" and that after the crises, some, but rarely all, of the new interventions ceased. ''Crisis and Leviathan'' surveys the history of the American federal government from the 1880s to the 1980s, applying the ratchet effect to the period. He cites economic crises and wars as the chief sources for the growth of government.

Daniel McCarthy praised Higgs and summarized his ratchet effect theory in a review ofAgainst Leviathan that appeared inThe American Conservative. In the review, McCarthy remarked that

What madeCrisis and Leviathan a milestone was the rigor with which it elaborated upon the logic ofJames Madison's 1794 warning against "the old trick of turning every contingency into a resource for accumulating force in government." Other political economists had studied the growth of state power during times of war, depression, and general upheaval before, but none had done so as thoughtfully and thoroughly as Higgs. He took special care in describing the "ratchet effect", once a crisis has passed state power usually recedes again, but it rarely returns to its original levels. Thus each emergency leaves the scope of government at least a little wider than before.^[10]

During the2008 presidential election, Higgs defended then-presidential candidateRon Paul in response toBret Stephens's article fromThe Wall Street Journal and made the case why "war, preparation for war, and foreign military interventions have served for the most part not to protect us, as we are constantly told, but rather to sap our economic vitality and undermine our civil and economic liberties."^[11]

• The Transformation of the American Economy, 1865–1914 (1971)
• Competition and Coercion: Blacks in the American Economy, 1865–1914 (1977)
• Crisis and Leviathan: Critical Episodes in the Growth of American Government (1987)
• Against Leviathan: Government Power and a Free Society (2004)
• Resurgence of the Warfare State: The Crisis Since 9/11 (2005)
• Depression, War and Cold War: Studies in Political Economy (2006)
• Politická ekonomie strachu ("The Political Economy of Fear") (Czech language; 2006)
• Neither Liberty Nor Safety: Fear, Ideology, and the Growth of Government (2007)
• Delusions of Power: New Explorations of the State, War, and Economy (2012)
• Taking a Stand: Reflections on Life, Liberty, and the Economy (2015)

• Emergence of the Modern Political Economy (1985)
• Arms, Politics, and the Economy: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (1990)
• Hazardous to Our Health? FDA Regulation of Health Care Products (1995)
• Re-Thinking Green: Alternatives to Environmental Bureaucracy with Carl P. Close (2005)
• The Challenge of Liberty: Classical Liberalism Today with Carl P. Close (2006)
• Opposing the Crusader State: Alternatives to Global Interventionism with Carl P. Close (2007)

• "War Can Rarely be Justified."War. Detroit:Greenhaven Press, 2014, pp. 27–36.ISBN 978-0737769715.
• Second Thoughts: Myths and Morals of U.S. Economic History, edited by Donald M. McCloskey. New York:Oxford University Press, 1993.ISBN 978-0195066333.

Wikiquote has quotations related toRobert Higgs.

• Biography atIndependent Institute
• Liberty and Power Group Blog
• Works by Higgs atLewRockwell.com
• Works by Higgs at theLudwig von Mises Institute
• Higgs, Robert."The War in Iraq: 1,760 Days and Counting."Los Angeles Chronicle, February 5, 2008.
• Roberts, Russ."Higgs on the Great Depression."EconTalk (December 15, 2008).Library of Economics and Liberty.
• Gordon, David."The State Eviscerated." Review ofAgainst Leviathan: Government Power and a Free Society by Robert Higgs.The Mises Review, Vol. 10, No. 4 (Winter 2004).
• Appearances onC-SPAN

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