Robert E. Park | |
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| Born | Robert Ezra Park (1864-02-14)February 14, 1864 Harveyville,Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, US |
| Died | February 7, 1944(1944-02-07) (aged 79) |
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| Spouse | Clara Cahill |
| Children | 4 |
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| Thesis | Masse und Publikum; Eine methodologische und soziologische Untersuchung (1904) |
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Robert Ezra Park (February 14, 1864 – February 7, 1944) was an Americanurban sociologist who is considered to be one of the most influential figures in early U.S. sociology.[1] Park was a pioneer in the field ofsociology, changing it from a passive philosophical discipline to an active discipline rooted in the study of human behavior. He made significant contributions to the study of urban communities, race relations and the development of empirically grounded research methods, most notably participant observation in the field ofcriminology.[2] From 1905 to 1914, Park worked withBooker T. Washington at theTuskegee Institute. After Tuskegee, he taught at theUniversity of Chicago from 1914 to 1933, where he played a leading role in the development of theChicago School of sociology.
Park is noted for his work inhuman ecology,race relations,human migration, culturalassimilation,social movements, andsocial disorganization[3] He played a large role in defining sociology as a natural science and challenged the belief that sociology is a moral science.[4] He saw sociology as "...a point of view and a method for investigating the processes by which individuals are inducted into and induced to cooperate in some sort of permanent corporate existence, society."[5]
Robert E. Park was born in Harveyville,Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, on February 14, 1864, to parents Hiram Asa Park and Theodosia Warner Park. Immediately following his birth, the Park family moved to Red Wing, Minnesota, where he grew up.[6]
Park lived inRed Wing for his first eighteen years. Given the pseudonym "Middle Border" by American novelistHamlin Garland, Red Wing was a small town of immigrants andMdewakanton on the bluffs and in the valley along the northernMississippi River. The rural area is fertile, andMinnesota serves as a corporate outpost for East Coast colonial investment in the American West; Park's hometown was connected to theTwin Cities nearby to the north andChicago to the east by barge, riverboat, and railroad.[7] Suggesting something of a criminology credential, Park later recalled an encounter with banditJesse James, who young Park provided with directions to a local blacksmith's shop.[8] Park has been described as an "awkward, sentimental and romantic boy" whose character led him to develop an interest in writing.[9] He was not considered a promising student, but he liked learning about the people in his town and their ancestries, a niche which would prove to be useful throughout his life. Park graduated high school in 1882, finishing tenth overall in a class of thirteen. Park was interested in attending college after high school, but his father did not consider his son "study material" and did not support the boy's plan. As a result, Robert ran away from home and found a job working on a railroad.[10]
Park's love of writing and concern for social issues, especially issues related to race in cities, led him to become a journalist. Franklin Ford and Park made plans for a newspaper,Thought News, which would report public opinion. Although it was never published, Park still pursued a career as a journalist. From 1887 to 1898, Park worked as a journalist inDetroit,Denver,New York City,Chicago, andMinneapolis.[11] Park's experience as a reporter led him to study the social function of the newspaper, "not as an organ of opinion, but as a record of current events".[6] Towards the end of his newspaper career, Park became disenchanted with the idea that newspaper reporting could alone solved social issues.[9] As a reporter Park learned a great deal about urban communities, which inspired his later sociological endeavors inrace relations.
In 1894, Park married Clara Cahill, the daughter of a wealthy Michigan family and had four children: Edward, Theodosia,Margaret and Robert.
Park first attended theUniversity of Minnesota, where he excelled in his courses. Because of his success at the University of Minnesota, his father offered to invest in furthering Robert's education at the prestigiousUniversity of Michigan. Upon entering the University of Michigan, Park decided to transition from studying science to instead studyingphilology. His professorCalvin Thomas exerted a great influence on him. He challenged him to expand his mind and deeply pursue the concepts presented in his courses.[6]
John Dewey also had a very strong influence on Park during his college year. After Park took Dewey's course on logic his sophomore year of college, he decided to again shift his major, this time tophilosophy. Park stated that his interest in going to college has originally been purely practical, originally intending to pursue engineering, but this mindset shifted when he began taking courses which truly intrigued him. He was endlessly fascinated by the notion of exploring the realm of the dubious and unknown rather than focusing on the secure knowledge offered to him in his previous years of education. Upon becoming a student of philosophy Park became, "presently possessed with a devouring curiosity to know more about the world and all that men had thought and done". His future work in the field of sociology, which primary focused on human's behavior in different environments, proves that this exploratory mindset stuck with him for the rest of his life.[6]
At the University of Michigan, Park was involved in the school newspaper,The Argonaut. He held a position of associate editor his junior year and managing editor his senior year. He wrote a satirical piece titled, "A Misapprehension, A Realistic Tale à la Henry James". The connections he formed atThe Argonaut would prove helpful in later landing him a job as a reporter at Minneapolis newspaper.
Park graduated from the University of Michigan with aBachelor of Arts degree (Phi Beta Kappa) in 1887. He attendedHarvard University and earned aMaster of Arts degree from Harvard in 1899. After graduating, he went to Germany to study Philosophy and Sociology from 1899 to 1900 withGeorg Simmel atFriedrich Wilhelm University (nowadays the Humboldt University of Berlin) inBerlin. The three courses Park took with Simmel constituted the majority of his sociological training,[9] and Park proceeded to adopt Simmel's belief that modernity would express itself most tangibly in the city.[8] Simmel's work thePhilosophy of Money and relative shorter essays greatly influenced Park's future writing.[12] In Berlin, Park read a book on the logics of social sciences by Russian authorBogdan A. Kistyakovski, who studied under philosopher Wilhelm Windelband.[9] It was this reading that inspired Park to spend a semester at theUniversity of Strasbourg (1900), and then he pursued and received aDoctor of Philosophy in philosophy in 1904 fromHeidelberg University underWilhelm Windelband andAlfred Hettner with a dissertation titledMasse und Publikum; Eine methodologische und soziologische Untersuchung, which translates toCrowd and Public: A methodological and sociological study.[13]
Park began his career with journaling in Minneapolis in 1887. Between then and 1898, he worked with newspapers in Detroit, Denver, New York, and Chicago until attending Harvard in 1898. He believed that his work for newspapers could encourage moral and social change through public outrage.[14] He worked in various journalistic capacities, such as being a police reporter, general reporter, and feature writer and city newspaper editor and wrote muckraking stories and investigative pieces and articles that called for techniques of "scientific reporting," which he later realized was similar to survey research.[9] Park's main focus as a journalist was the daily life of human beings and their routines. His focus was what journalists call "human interest".[15] His experience as a journalist impacted his view on the world and how people should study it. Although he was a journalist for many years he was not totally satisfied with just reporting current events. Park wanted to dive deeper than the surface of these events and understand the underlying long-term significance of the events.[14]
In 1904, Park began teaching philosophy at Harvard as an assistant professor.[13] Park taught there for two years until celebrated educator and author,Booker T. Washington, invited him to theTuskegee Institute to work on racial issues in the southern United States. Park was offered a position by the Congo Reform Association, but ended up subsequently working for Washington at Tuskegee. Park and Washington originally met through their mutual interest in helping Africans through the Congo Reform Association of which Park was secretary and Washington was vice president. Over the next seven years, Park worked for Washington by doing field research and taking courses. In 1910, Park traveled to Europe to compare US poverty to European poverty. Shortly after the trip, Washington, with the help of Park, publishedThe Man Farthest Down (1913).[16] This publication highlights Parker and Washington's journey to explore Europe in the hopes of finding the man "the farthest down" in order to explore these people were choosing to emigrate and the likeliness of a future change in positions. This led them on a six-week journey through the British Isles, France, Italy, Poland, Denmark, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire.[17]
After the Tuskegee Institute, Park joined the Department of Sociology at theUniversity of Chicago in 1914, first as a lecturer (until 1923), then as a full professor until his retirement in 1933.[11] During his time in Chicago, he continued to study and teachhuman ecology and race relations. In 1914, Park taught his first course in the Sociology and Anthropology department. The course was titledThe Negro in America and it was, "Directed especially to the effects, in slavery and freedom, of the white and black race, an attempt will be made to characterize the nature of the present tensions and tendencies and to estimate the character of the changes which race relations are likely to bring about in the American system".[6] This class was important from a historical perspective because it may have been the first course ever offered at a predominantly white institution that focused exclusively on black Americans. This set a precedent for classes with similar focuses to come.
During Park's time at the University of Chicago, its sociology department began to use the city that surrounded it as a sort of research laboratory. His work, together with that of his Chicago colleagues, such asErnest Burgess,Homer Hoyt, andLouis Wirth – developed into an approach tourban sociology that became known as the Chicago School. This would become Park's legacy.
After leaving the University of Chicago, Park moved toNashville, Tennessee. He taught atFisk University until his death in 1944, at age 79.[11]
During his lifetime, Park became a well-known figure both within and outside the academic world. At various times from 1925, he was president of theAmerican Sociological Association and of theChicago Urban League, and he was a member of theSocial Science Research Council. Park's presidential address for the American Sociological Association was entitled "The Concept of Position in Sociology" and was later published in theProceedings of the 1925 Annual Meeting.[18]
Park coined the termhuman ecology, the study of the relationship betweenhumans and theirnatural,social, andbuilt environments. The term has been described as an attempt to apply the interrelations of human beings a type of analysis previously applied to the interrelations of plants and animals.[19] Park himself explains human ecology as, "fundamentally an attempt to investigate the processes by which the biotic balance and social equilibrium are disturbed, the transition is made from one relatively stable order to other".Bogardus acknowledges that Park is the father of human ecology, proclaiming, "Not only did he coin the name but he laid out the patterns, offered the earliest exhibit of ecological concepts, defined the major ecological processes and stimulated more advanced students to cultivate the fields of research in ecology than most other sociologists combined."[20]
Park found that a key underpinning of his human ecology is the concept of competition. He believed that it is the primary feature of the biotic level of life. He maintained that human beings restricted in some areas when it comes to competition, while in the plant and animal kingdom it is uninhibited. He maintained that human restriction of competition is what allows our modern concept of society to exist. The essential characteristics of competition are 1) a territorially organized population 2) that is more or less completely rooted in the soil it occupies 3) the individual units living in a relationship are living in a mutually dependent relationship, not a symbiotic one.[19] According to Park's papers regarding this topic, "Dominance" and "Succession: An Ecological Concept", ecological competition can be manifest itself through dominance and succession.[6]
While at theUniversity of Chicago, Park continued to strengthen his theory of human ecology. Along withErnest W. Burgess developed a program of urban research in the sociology department.[16] They also developed a theory ofurban ecology, which first appeared in their bookIntroduction to the Science of Sociology (1922). Using the city of Chicago as their model they proposed that cities were environments like those found in nature. Park and Burgess suggested that cities were governed by many of the same forces ofDarwinian evolution that happens in ecosystems. They felt the most significant force was competition. Competition was created by groups fighting for urban resources, like land, which led to a division of urban space intoecological niches. Within these niches people shared similar social characteristics because they were subject to the same ecological pressure.[21]
Competition for land and resources within cities eventually leads to separation of urban space into zones with the more desirable zones imposing higher rent. As residents of a city become more affluent, they move outward from the city center. Park and Burgess refer to this asuccession, a term also used in plant ecology. They predicted that cities would form into five concentric rings with areas of social and physical deterioration concentrated in the center and prosperous areas near the city's edge. This model is known asconcentric zone theory, it was first published inThe City (1925).[21]
Park spent a great deal of time studyingrace relations withBooker T. Washington while at the University of Chicago.[22] Park contributed significantly to the study of race relations, withEverrett Hughes stating that, "Park probably contributed more ideas for analysis of racial relations and cultural contracts than any other modern social scientist."[20]
Park worked closely with Booker T. Washington and theTuskegee Institute from 1907 to 1914. While working under Washington, Park's primary interest was the system that had evolved to define Black-White relations in the South. Park said that he learned more about human nature and society while in the South. He says that, "These seven years were for me a sort of prolonged internship during which I gained a clinical and first hand knowledge of a first class social problem . . .[It was from Washington that] I gained some adequate notion of how deep-rooted in human history and human nature social institutions were, and how difficult, if not impossible it was, to make fundamental changes in them by mere legislation or by legal artifice of any sort".[3]
After leaving the Tuskegee Institute, Park joined the University of Chicago where he developed a theory of assimilation, as it pertained to immigrants in the United States, known as the "race relation cycle".[23] The cycle has four stages: contact, conflict, accommodation, and assimilation. The first step is contact followed by competition. Then, after some time, a hierarchical arrangement can prevail – one of accommodation – in which one race was dominant and others dominated. In the end assimilation occurred. Park declared that it is "a cycle of events which tends everywhere to repeat itself" and that it can also be seen in other social processes."[24] He was instrumental in founding the race relations course at Chicago.[25]
Park's theory of conflict has been discredited for a number of reasons, and his theories and contributions in sociology have largely been neglected and forgotten over time.
In the years following the heyday of the Chicago school, Park's reputation took a downfall, and his idea of "symbolic interactionism" was subsequently pushed aside. Park was frequently called a conservative when it came to his theory of the race relations cycle. Critics of Park misinterpreted his theory of race relations, believing that Park meant to assert that progression through the four stages was inevitable; current discourse debates whether Park meant anything of the sort. Within Park's theory of conflict, race relations exists merely as a specific case of this greater theory. Racial groups, or any other kind of group can remain in the conflict stage indefinitely.[26]
Park was further criticized for perceived racist tendencies. Already in his work as an editorial secretary of the Congo Reform Association, Park defended the idea of a noble white civilizing mission to elevate an allegedly savage African population. During his years at the Tuskegee Institute, this nostalgia for European imperialism was complemented by a stereotypical depiction of black peasants in the South as a primitive counterpart of the negative tendencies Park identified in modern city life. These early views on imperialism and race have been called a form of "romantic racism" that strongly influenced his later more elaborated sociological perspectives on the same issues.[27] As already the black Marxist Oliver C. Cox, a student of Park, has warned, this racial essentialism eventually led Park to a mystification of race relations in the Jim Crow era as a natural solution to racial conflict.[28]
In his essayEducation in its relation to the conflict and fusion of cultures, Park can be quoted:
The Negro is, by natural disposition, neither an intel-lectual nor an idealist, like the Jew; nor a brooding introspective, like the East African; nor a pioneer and frontiersman, like the Anglo-Saxon. He is primarily an artist, loving of life for its sake. His métier is expression rather than action. He is, so to speak the lady among the races.
Park's belief in inherited racial temperaments, though racist, was somewhat offset by his belief in "social inheritance" working in tandem with "biological inheritance". Put simply, he thought that while some races are more predisposed to certain temperaments, a whole person is also made up of their social qualities. Park also supported Franz Boas' conclusion that there was no scientific evidence to indicate that "Blacks were as a group intellectually inferior to Whites".
The works of sociologistsLouis Wirth andRose Hum Lee illustrate the downfalls of Park's thinking, specifically in relation to adhering to his views on ethnic groups in America. Park's conclusions that the complete assimilation of Jews, Christians, and Chinese folks have occurred was shown within Wirth and Hum Lee's work to be untrue.[29]
Park's impact on the field of sociology is palpable yet often goes unrecognized. The majority of the sociologists born in the nineteenth century borrowed and concentrated in other fields and their work was considered sociological after the fact.[6] Park was one such sociologist, with much of his interests originating in philosophy and then evolving into what we consider to be modern sociology when he began to focus on studying Chicago. His work led to the development of theChicago school in sociology. Park along with fellow Chicago School sociologistsErnest Burgess,William I. Thomas,George Herbert Mead,[32] andLouis Wirth created a theoretical basis for sociology which emphasized the more methodological approach which we recognize today.[13] The school produced many studies on city life, including ones on Polish immigrants, gangs, and Jewish ghetto life. It has been noted that Park and his students employed a 'moving camera' approach to their studies of urban life, attempting to capture city dwellers in their natural modes of life.[33] The Chicago school of thought regardingurban ecology still guides much of the work conducted in this field today. Additionally, Erving Goffman, who is considered to be the most influential sociologist of the twenty-first century, embraced the legacy of Park by adopting more qualitative methods when constructing predictive empirical science in contrast to positivist sociological trends.[8]
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