Rings held a prominent position inearly Germanic cultures, appearing both in archaeology throughout areas settled byGermanic peoples, and in textual sources discussing their practices and beliefs. They are notably associated with the related aspects of wealth, being used as forms of currency in theEarly Medieval Period, and swearing sacredoaths, often dedicated to, or witnessed by, thegods. The sacrality of rings is reflected inGermanic mythology and ring bestowal held a central role in maintaining functional relationships between rulers and their retinues. The cultural roles of rings continued to varying extents during and after theChristianisation of the Germanic peoples, such as in gift-bestowal and oath-swearing.
Arm,finger andneck rings dating to theEarly Medieval Period have been found in hoards throughout Northern Europe, such as theSpillings Hoard inGotland and theSilverdale Hoard in Lancashire.[1] Artistic styles varied with region and time, with new styles arising through formation of mixed cultural groups, such as the development ofHiberno-Scandinavian forms through the Scandinavian settlement of Ireland.[2]
Rings are also depicted, both in picture stones, often on those relating to the story ofSigurð like theDrävle runestone, and onbracteates dating to themigration era.[3]
Anglo-Saxon runic finger rings have been found in England dating from the 8th–11th centuries CE. Some of the inscriptions can be translated, often denoting ownership, however some do not appear to form words and consequently have been interpreted as magic formulae. Single runes are often used consecutively in multiples of 3.[4] It has been suggested that finger rings were uncommon in England during the 5th–6th centuries CE with both men and women, however their popularity increased in the 10th–11th centuries, when they became relatively more popular among women.[5] These finger rings are typically made of silver or gold, although bronze and lead have also been found, and can have settings for gems or coloured glass; in the case of the Wheatley Hill rings, the settings seem to have been added after the inscription as it partially obscures therunes.[6] Explicitly Christian inscriptions are common, representing approximately one third of total inscriptions, consistent withExeter Book riddles 48 and 59, however this is lower than the average across all media in England for this period.[7]
Neck rings are described inIbn Fadlan's account of theRus' people, where women wear a number of silver or gold rings, each worth 10,000dirhams in metal, as a form of portable wealth; the precise value has been suggested to be an exaggeration due to the impracticality of the high weight. Contemporary to this, in Scandinavia and areas with significant Scandinavian influence such asBritain and Ireland, arm and bullion rings were used in the same manner forhacksilver, where they would be cut up and used in financial transactions. These rings often show nicks which are commonly attributed to metal purity checks.[8][9] The weights of intact arm and neck rings are always multiples of mercantile units, further supporting their usage as a form of wearable currency. Consistent with the Rus' rings being standardised in line with a value of dirhams, in Sweden, weights have been found that are integers of both Scandinavian and Islamic units, suggesting an integration of the trading systems; dirhams have also been found in both England and Scandinavia dating to theEarly medieval period, which would have been used as part of the bullion economy or melted down into ingots.[10] Similarly, the economic value of rings is attested on theProse Edda account ofFróði's Peace when a golden ring is lain down onJelling heath without being stolen, as a demonstration of the lack of law-breaking in the period.[3]
Giving of rings is a central responsibility of kings inAnglo-Saxon societies, as described inMaxims II:
Sweord sceal on bearme,
drihtlic isern. Draca sceal on hlæwe,
frod, frætwum wlanc. Fisc sceal on wætere
cynren cennan. Cyning sceal on healle
beagas dælan.
The sword must be in the lap,
the lordly iron. The dragon must be in the barrow,
aged, proud in treasure. The fish must be in the water,
propagating its kind. The king must wait in the hall,
dealing in rings.
Beowulf describes ring-giving as having a central role in building social cohesion among the retainers of a lord, who is in turn referred to by thekenning "ring-giver".[13]Thanes are given treasures such as rings, and after accepting them enter into an agreement to remain loyal in return;[14] in this practice, the significance for building relations is in the cultural value of the exchange rather than the objective value of the ring, or other treasure, itself.[15]Hrōðgār upholds his responsibility as a king with both deeds and actions, sharing rings during feasts inHeorot. This stands in contrast withHeremod, who did not give rings to retainers while king of theDanes and is given as an example of an unjust and greedy king who was eventually removed from his position for abusing his authority.[16]
The importance of rings as royal cult objects continued afterChristianisation of the Anglo-Saxons into the 10th century CE, as attested in theAnglo-Saxon chronicle when an English king is referred to as a generous ring-giver (Old English:beaggifa),[17] a description also used for Jesus in theOld SaxonHeliand.[18][note 1] The relationship with kings is also seen in the SwedishSvíagriss – an ancestral ring of theYnglings whose name means "Sweden-piglet". The association between pigs and the Ynglings is also seen in the use ofboar helmets and through their claimed descent fromFrey, a god closely associated with the animal.[20] Together, this has led to the proposal that the ring represents the totemic connection between the Swedes and boar.[21]
Related to the concept of swearing allegiance to a ruler in return for a ring, oaths were also sworn upon rings without an exchange of ownership. InHávamál,Odin describes how he broke a ring-oath (Old Norse:baugeið), and now cannot be trusted.[22] TheAnglo-Saxon chronicle records that in 876, theDanes were convinced to swear a peace oath on a holy ring (Old English:hâlgan beage) toKing Alfred after his victory atWareham.[23][24]Sagas such asEyrbyggja saga andVíga-Glúms saga describe rings sitting on the altars of North Germanicheathen temples, upon which oaths would be sworn. Duringblóts, the ring could then be sprinkled with blood from a sacrificed animal.[25][26] Temple rings varied in size in accounts, from small rings weighing around 50 g, as inLandnámabók, to that described inEyrbyggja saga at a temple ofThor weighing around 550 g.[26]
InAtlakviða, Atli swears an oath on a ring dedicated toUllr,[27] while inLandnámabók oaths are sworn on a ring, while calling on the names ofFreyr,Njörðr and an unclear god referred to as the 'almighty Ás':
Baugr, tvíeyringr eða meiri, skyldi liggja í hverju höfuðhofi á stalla. Þann baug skyldi hverr goði hafa á hendi sér til lögþinga allra, þeira er hann skyldi sjálfr heyja, ok rjóða hann þar áðr í roðru nautsblóðs þess, er hann blótaði þar sjálfr. Hverr sá maðr, er þar þurfti lögskil af hendi at leysa at dómi, skyldi áðr eið vinna at þeim baugi ok nefna sér vátta tvá eða fleiri. "Nefni ek í þat vætti," skyldi hann segja, "at ek vinn eið at baugi, lögeið. Hjálpi mér sváFreyr okNjörðr ok innAlmáttki áss sem ek mun svá sök þessa sækja eða verja eða vitni bera eða kviðu eða dæma sem ek veit réttast ok sannast ok helzt at lögum ok öll lögmæt skil af hendi leysa, þau er undir mik koma, meðan ek em á þessuþingi.
A ring weighing two ounces or more should lie on the stall in every chief Temple, and this ring should every chief orgoði have upon his arm at all public law-motes (logthing) at which he should be at the head of affairs, having first reddened it in the blood of aneat which he himself hadsacrificed there. Every man who was there to transact any business, as by law provided by the Court, should first take an oath upon that ring and name for the purpose two or more witnesses and repeat the following words: — "I call to witness in evidence, he was to say, that I take oath upon the ring, a lawful one (lögeid) so help meFrey andNiord and theAlmighty God, to this end that I shall in this case prosecute or defend or bear witness or give award or pronounce doom according to what I know to be most right and most true and most lawful, and that I will deal lawfully with all such matters in law as I have to deal with while I am at thisThing."
Sacred rings are also attested inEast Germanic cultures, such as with thering of Pietroassa, theElder Furthark inscription of which has been translated fromGothic as "inheritance of theGoths. I am holy". A letter from Bishop Ambrosius of Milan in the 4th century CE also describes arm rings being worn both byheathen Gothic priests and, to his displeasure, the GothicArian priests.[3]
After theChristianisation of the Germanic peoples, the practice retained some importance during themedieval period, where rings were hung on church doors, such as theForsa Ring [sv] fromHälsingland in Sweden that was at a church adjacent to an oldthing mound. Outside ofScandinavia,continental sources describing oaths being sworn on church rings from the 9th to 14th centuries CE.[30]
In mythological contexts, rings typically reflect their historical roles and are typically important items of high quality craftsmanship, forged bydwarfs, such as Freyja's neck-ring,Brisingamen.[32] The ringDraupnir is told inSkáldskaparmál to have been forged by thedwarfsBrokkr andSindri, to drip eight equally heavy rings every eight nights.[note 2] Accordingly, Draupnir is used inkennings for gold inSkáldskaparmál. Draupnir is typically attributed toOdin however inSkáldskaparmál it is once described as being owned byBaldr, and is lain in Baldr's pyre by Odin according toGylfaginning.[34][35]Gesta Danorum also describes a ring owned by Baldr that also brought wealth, and may reflect a shared tradition.[34]
Draupnir has been seen as the mythical counterpart to the temple ring and has been identified on Norwegianbracteates dating from the 5th–7th centuries CE, where it has been proposed to act as a symbol of Odin's power, and to have a role in legitimising the sacred right of kings to rule. Although the precise interpretation of depictions involving rings is not undisputed, their common presence alongside depictions of gods inmigration period bracteates and amulets, demonstrates the importance of the symbol to theGermanic peoples.[34]
Great wealth is also associated withAndvaranaut, a ring once owned by the dwarfAndvari and taken byLoki through coercion asweregild for his killing ofÓtr. Due to Loki's greed and threats, Andvari places a curse on the ring, along with the rest of the hoard that Loki takes, that it will be the death of whosoever owns it. Throughout theVölsunga saga, curse is fulfilled with the owners of the ring dying, including Otr's fatherHreiðmarr, his brotherFáfnir (who becomes adragon after claiming it) and the heroSigurð.[36]
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