Thering ouzel (Turdus torquatus) is a mainly European member of thethrush familyTurdidae. It is a medium-sized thrush, 23–24 centimetres (9.1–9.4 in) in length and weighing 90–138 grams (3.2–4.9 oz). The male is predominantly black with a conspicuous white crescent across its breast. Females are browner and duller than males, and young birds may lack the pale chest markings altogether. In all but the northernmost part of itsrange, this is a high-altitude species, with three races breeding in mountains from Ireland east to Iran. It breeds in open mountain areas with some trees or shrubs, the latter often includingheather,conifers,beech,hairy alpenrose orjuniper. It is amigratory bird, leaving the breeding areas to winter in southern Europe,North Africa and Turkey, typically in mountains with juniper bushes. The typicalclutch is 3–6 brown-flecked pale blue or greenish-blue eggs. They are incubated almost entirely by the female, with hatching normally occurring after 13 days. Thealtricial, downy chicksfledge in another 14 days and are dependent on their parents for about 12 days after fledging.
The ring ouzel isomnivorous, eatinginvertebrates, particularlyinsects andearthworms, some smallvertebrates, and a wide range of fruit. Most animal prey is caught on the ground. During spring migration and the breeding season, invertebrates dominate the adult's diet and are also fed to the chicks. Later in the year, fruit becomes more important, particularly thecommon juniper.
With an extensive range and a large population, the ring ouzel is evaluated asleast concern by theInternational Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). There are signs of decline in several countries; suspected causes includingclimate change, human disturbance, hunting and outdoor leisure activities. Loss of junipers may also be a factor in some areas. Natural hazards include predation by mammalian carnivores and birds of prey, and locally there may also be competition from other large thrushes such as thecommon blackbird,mistle thrush andfieldfare.
"Ouzel" is an old name for thecommon blackbird, the word being cognate with the GermanAmsel.[2] "Ouzel" may also be applied to a group of superficially similar but more distantly related birds, thedippers, the European representative of which is sometimes known as thewater ouzel.[3] "Ring Ouzel" was first used byJohn Ray in his 1674Collection of English Words not Generally Used and became established with his 1678 bookThe Ornithology of Francis Willughby of Middleton in the County of Warwick.[4][5][6] As with theEnglish term, the scientific name also refers to the male's prominent white neck crescent, being derived from theLatin wordsturdus, "thrush", andtorquatus, "collared".[7] Old and local names for the ring ouzel include "fell blackbird", "hill blackbird", "moor blackbird", "rock ouzel"[8] and "mountain blackbird".[9]
There are about 85 species of medium to largethrushes in thegenusTurdus.[13] They are characterised by rounded heads, medium or longish pointed wings, and usually melodious songs.[14]
A 2020 study of thegenetics ofTurdus[13] suggested that the genus arose about 9.37 million years ago (Mya), expanding out of Africa around 7.2 Mya, and diverging intoPalearctic andOriental groups about 5.7 Mya. Furtherradiation from Africa to the Americas followed at about 5.3 Mya. Details of the study suggest that the ring ouzel, a member of the Eurasian group, may be more closely related toNaumann's anddusky thrushes than to the superficially more similar common blackbird.[13]
The ring ouzel has three recognised subspecies:[15] The northern ring ouzel,Turdus torquatus torquatus Linnaeus (1758) is thenominate subspecies (the subspecies that repeats the name of the species). It breeds across western and northern Europe from Ireland throughScandinavia to northwest Russia and winters in southern Europe and northwest Africa.[15] The Alpine ring ouzel,T. t. alpestrisBrehm, C L (1831) breeds in mountain ranges fromIberia through southern and central Europe to theBalkans, Greece and western Turkey, and also inNorth Africa. It winters in North Africa, southern Europe and southern Turkey.[15][16] The Caucasian ring ouzel,T. t. amicorumHartert E (1923) breeds in central and eastern Turkey east to Turkmenistan, and winters mainly in Iran and parts of Iraq.[15][17] Analysis ofmitochondrial DNA samples from across Europe suggests that this species had a much broader distribution after theLast Glacial Period that ended about 11,700 years ago than it does now.[18]
The ring ouzel is 23–24 centimetres (9.1–9.4 in) in length and weighs 90–138 grams (3.2–4.9 oz). Theplumage of the male of the nominate race is entirely black except for a conspicuous white crescent on thebreast, narrow greyish scaling on theupperparts and belly and pale edges to the wing feathers. The bill is yellow and the legs are greyish brown. The female resembles the male but is browner and with a duller breast band. Juveniles are like the female, but with a faint or non-existent breast crescent.[15]
The pale breast marking makes adults of this species unmistakeable; first-winter males also sometimes show a pale crescent. Other young ouzels can be confused with the common blackbird, but always show a paler wing panel than that species.[19]
Males ofT. t. alpestris have broader white scalloping (repeated small curves) on their underparts thanT. t. torquatus, giving a distinctly scaly appearance below. The wing panel is also paler than in the nominate subspecies. Females are much as the nominate race, but with broad white fringes on the chin and throat.[20] Males ofT. t. amicorum have the largest and whitest breast band of the three subspecies, and the broader white edges and tips of the wing feathers form a distinctive whitish panel in the wing. Females have narrow white fringes on their underparts.[20] Adult ring ouzels undergo a completemoult after breeding from late June to early September, before their autumn migration. Juveniles have a partial moult between July and September, replacing their head, body andwing covert feathers.[20]
The male ring ouzel sings from a low perch or occasionally in flight. The song consists of a repetition of 2–4 plaintive fluty notes,tri-ríí, tri-ríí, ti-ríí with pauses between repeats. The call is a loudtac-tac-tac, becoming harsher if the bird is alarmed. Thecontact call is a softcherrr in flight.[15] Males sing most frequently at dawn and sunset.[20]
The ring ouzel breeds discontinuously across western and northern Europe from north-westIreland through Scandinavia to northwest Russia, and in mountains across central southern Europe from thePyrenees through theAlps, the Balkans, Greece and Turkey east toTurkmenistan.[1] In 2014, breeding was recorded on theTiman Ridge,Arkhangelsk Oblast, about 300 kilometres (190 mi) further east than previously known breeding sites in north Russia.[15]
The species ismigratory, birds leaving the breeding areas in September and October. Birds of the nominate subspecies winter in southern Spain and northwest Africa. Central European populations ofT. t. alpestris move to higher elevations initially before moving south or southwest through the Swiss Alps; some two weeks later migrants of the nominate form pass through the same area to winter in the south of the breeding range or around the Mediterranean. Easternalpestris ouzels migrate through the Balkans and Turkey.T. t. amoricus moves south toEgypt and neighbouring areas. The return migration is mainly in March and April, the males arriving some days before the females. Northern breeders arrive later, and in the mountains, some birds may ascend in stages as the snow melts.[15] Many birds stop off at traditional well-grazed grassland locations in both spring and autumn.[21]
In middle latitudes, the ring ouzel is a bird of continental mountains, but in the north of its range, it is found in coastal uplands. It can cope with wind and rain but avoids ice and snow. NominateT. t. torquatus is usually found on open moorland with a few stunted trees above 250 metres (820 ft), and reaching 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) inScotland and northern Europe.[22] In Switzerland, ring ouzels breed on rugged upland slopes withheather,conifers,beech orhairy alpenrose at 1,100–1,300 metres (3,600–4,300 ft),[15][22] although in Turkey birds are found from sea level to 1,500 metres (4,900 ft).[20] In Armenia and the Caucasus, it occupies similar steep habitat with conifer stands, rhododendron thickets, andjuniper scrub and shrub, from sea level to 2,000–3,000 metres (6,600–9,800 ft).[15]
In northwest Africa ring ouzels winter in juniper forest at 1,800–2,200 metres (5,900–7,200 ft), often near rivers or ponds. On migration, ouzels may occur on coastal grassland and steep hillsides with short, unsown wild grass and sparse scrub.[15]
The ring ouzel isterritorial and normally seen alone or in pairs, although loose flocks may form on migration. When not breeding, several birds may be loosely associated in good feeding areas, such as a fruiting tree, often with other thrushes such as song thrushes orredwings. The ouzel's flight is direct, and birds often perch on rocks or heather clumps.[20]
Ring ouzels nest from mid-April to mid-July in the Alps and theBritish Isles, and from May to August in Scandinavia. Territories may be strung out along streams, 160–200 metres (520–660 ft) apart and the ranges may overlap, but this species does not form breeding colonies. The nest, built by the female, is a cup of leaves, dry grass and other plant material consolidated with mud. In the west of the range nests are almost always built on the ground, butT. t. alpestris may also nest in a small tree or scrub at an average height of 3.5 metres (11 ft).[15][20]
Theclutch is 3–6 pale blue or greenish-blue eggs flecked with reddish-brown.[15] The eggs are 30 mm × 22 mm (1.18 in × 0.87 in) in size and weigh 7.4 grams (0.26 oz) of which 6% is shell. Incubation is almost always by the female, hatching typically occurring after 13 days. Thealtricial, downy chicksfledge in another 14 days.[23] The young are dependent on their parents for about 12 days after fledging.[15]
Adults breed after their first year and their average lifespan is two years, although nine years has been recorded.[23] There may be two broods, especially in the south of the range,[20] although triple-brooding is rare. This species isphilopatric, returning to the same area to breed each year.[24] Around 36% of juveniles survive their first year, while the annual survival rate for adults is 47% for males and 37% for females. The main causes of death in northwest Europe are predation (9%), accidental human-related incidents (10%), and hunting, mainly in France (77%).[15]
The young are mainly fed invertebrates,caterpillars and earthworms being major items where available. Although birds migrating in autumn use similar habitat to that used in spring, seasonal berries make up most of their diet, particularlyelderberries, haws and, where available, juniper berries.[15]
Predators of the ring ouzel include thetawny owl,long-eared owl,[27]common buzzard,common kestrel andEurasian sparrowhawk,least weasel andstoat. Most deaths are of young juveniles, and birds hatched early in the season are more likely to survive than later broods.[28] A Scottish study showed thatraptors were responsible for 59% of deaths and mammals for 27%. In Romania, eggs were taken byred squirrels andspotted nutcrackers.[15] As with otherTurdus thrushes, the ring ouzel is rarely a host of thecommon cuckoo, abrood parasite. If the thrush's nest cup is too deep for the cuckoo to evict the host's chicks, the young cuckoo cannot successfully compete for food with the fast-growing host species' chicks, and if the cuckoo does manage to expel its nest-mates, the parents are reluctant to feed it; either way, the young cuckoo will starve.[29]
A study in theCarpathian Mountains found that a significant proportion of ring ouzels carriedtrombiculid mites, commonly known as chiggers. Thesemites commonly infect ground-feeding birds, and heavy infestations can cause birds to lose condition and stop feeding.[30] Thehard-bodied tickIxodes festai commonly parasitises thrushes, including the ring ouzel.[31] There is a record of this species carrying aHaemoproteus blood parasite.[32]
The ring ouzel has an extensive range, estimated at 9.17 million square kilometres (3.54 million sq mi), and a large population, estimated at 600,000–2 million individuals in Europe (which comprises 95% of the breeding range). The species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criteria of the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations), and is therefore evaluated asleast concern. The breeding population in Europe was estimated to be 299,000–598,000 pairs in 2019.[1]
There are signs of decline in several countries. Its declinein Ireland in recent years has been striking, with regular breeding now confined to two counties. Suspected causes includeclimate change, human disturbance, hunting and outdoor leisure activities. Loss of junipers may be a factor in southern Spain and north-west Africa, as may upland forestation in the UK. There may also be competition from larger thrushes like the common blackbird, mistle thrush and fieldfare.[1] A Scottish study suggested that sites at higher altitudes and with a good cover ofheather were less likely to have been deserted by breeding ring ouzels than lower or more open locations.[33]
In the Alps, the density of breeding pairs can reach 60–80 per square kilometre (160–210/sq mi) but is generally much lower with 37 per square kilometre (96/sq mi) inHaute-Savoie, 22 per square kilometre (57/sq mi) in theJura Mountains, and 8 per square kilometre (21/sq mi) in more open habitats in Britain.[15]
^Although scientists had been coining names in the previous century, the universally accepted starting point of modern taxonomy for animals is set at 1758, with the publishing of Linnaeus'10th edition ofSystema Naturae.[12]
^abcdefghijklmnopqrstCollar, Nigel; Christie, David A (2020). del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A; de Juana, Eduardo (eds.). "Ring Ouzel (Turdus torquatus), version 1.0".Birds of the World. Ithaca, New York: Cornell Lab of Ornithology.doi:10.2173/bow.rinouz1.01.S2CID241353806.
^Bacht, Michael; Rösner, Sascha; Müller, Jörg; Pfeifer, Robert; Stadler, Jutta; Brandl, Roland; Opgenoorth, Lars (2013). "Are Ring Ouzel (Turdus torquatus) populations of the low mountain ranges remnants of a broader distribution in the past?".Journal of Ornithology.154 (1):231–237.Bibcode:2013JOrni.154..231B.doi:10.1007/s10336-012-0889-0.S2CID254157782.
^Svensson, Lars; Mullarney, Killian; Zetterstrom, Dan; Grant, Peter (2010).Birds of Europe (2nd ed.). London: Collins. p. 296.ISBN978-0-00-726726-2.
^abSnow, David; Perrins, Christopher M, eds. (1998).The Birds of the Western Palearctic concise edition. Vol. 2 Passerines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1212–1215.ISBN0-19-854099-X.
^Zamora, Regino (1990). "The fruit diet of ring-ouzels (Turdus torquatus) wintering in the Sierra Nevada (South-East Spain)".Alauda.58 (1):67–70.
^Rumeu, Beatriz; Padilla, David P (2010). "The key role of a Ring OuzelTurdus torquatus wintering population in seed dispersal of the endangered endemicJuniperus cedrus in an insular environment".Acta Ornithologica.44 (2):199–204.doi:10.3161/000164509X482786.S2CID84868622.
^Sim, Innes M W; Burfield, Ian J; Grant, Murray C; Pearce-Higgins, James W; Brooke, M de L (2007). "The role of habitat composition in determining breeding site occupancy in a declining Ring OuzelTurdus torquatus population".Ibis.149 (2):374–385.doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2007.00655.x.
