Reuse of human excreta is the safe, beneficial use of treatedhuman excreta after applying suitable treatment steps and risk management approaches that are customized for the intended reuse application. Beneficial uses of the treated excreta may focus on using theplant-available nutrients (mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) that are contained in the treated excreta. They may also make use of the organic matter and energy contained in the excreta. To a lesser extent, reuse of the excreta's water content might also take place, although this is better known aswater reclamation from municipalwastewater. The intended reuse applications for the nutrient content may include:soil conditioner orfertilizer inagriculture orhorticultural activities. Other reuse applications, which focus more on the organic matter content of the excreta, include useas a fuel source or as an energy source in the form ofbiogas.
There is a large and growing number of treatment options to make excreta safe and manageable for the intended reuse option.[1] Options include urine diversion and dehydration of feces (urine-diverting dry toilets), composting (composting toilets or externalcomposting processes),sewage sludge treatment technologies and a range offecal sludge treatment processes. They all achieve various degrees of pathogen removal and reduction in water content for easier handling. Pathogens of concern are enteric bacteria, virus, protozoa, andhelminth eggs in feces.[2] As the helminth eggs are the pathogens that are the most difficult to destroy with treatment processes, they are commonly used as anindicator organism in reuse schemes. Other health risks and environmental pollution aspects that need to be considered include spreadingmicropollutants,pharmaceutical residues andnitrate in the environment which could causegroundwater pollution and thus potentially affectdrinking water quality.
There are several "human excreta derived fertilizers" which vary in their properties and fertilizing characteristics, for example: urine, dried feces, composted feces, fecal sludge,sewage,sewage sludge.
The nutrients and organic matter which are contained in human excreta or in domestic wastewater (sewage) have been used in agriculture in many countries for centuries. However, this practice is often carried out in an unregulated and unsafe manner indeveloping countries.World Health Organization Guidelines from 2006 have set up a framework describing how this reuse can be done safely by following a "multiple barrier approach".[3] Such barriers might be selecting a suitable crop, farming methods, methods of applying the fertilizer and education of the farmers.
Human excreta, fecal sludge and wastewater are often referred to as wastes (see alsohuman waste). Within the concept of acircular economy in sanitation, an alternative term that is being used is "resource flows".[4]: 10 The final outputs from thesanitation treatment systems can be called "reuse products" or "other outputs".[4]: 10 These reuse products are general fertilizers,soil conditioners,biomass, water, or energy.
Reuse of human excreta focuses on the nutrient and organic matter content of human excreta unlikereuse of wastewater which focuses on the water content. An alternative term is "use of human excreta" rather than "reuse" as strictly speaking it is thefirstuse of human excreta, not the second time that it is used.[3]
The resources available in wastewater and human excreta include water,plant nutrients,organic matter and energy content.Sanitation systems that are designed for safe and effectiverecovery of resources can play an important role in a community's overallresource management.
Recovering the resources embedded in excreta and wastewater (like nutrients, water and energy) contributes to achievingSustainable Development Goal 6 and othersustainable development goals.[5]
It can be efficient to combine wastewater and human excreta with otherorganic waste such asmanure, and food and crop waste for the purposes of resource recovery.[6]
There is a large and growing number of treatment options to make excreta safe and manageable for the intended reuse option.[1] Various technologies and practices, ranging in scale from a single rural household to a city, can be used to capture potentially valuable resources and make them available for safe, productive uses that support human well-being and broadersustainability. Some treatment options are listed below but there are many more:[1]
A guide by theSwedish University of Agricultural Sciences provides a list of treatment technologies for sanitation resource recovery: Vermicomposting andvermifiltration, black soldier fly composting,algae cultivation,microbial fuel cell, nitrification and distillation of urine,struvite precipitation, incineration,carbonization, solar drying, membranes, filters, alkaline dehydration of urine,[7][8] ammonia sanitization/urea treatment, and lime sanitization.[4] Further research involves UV advanced oxidation processes in order to degrade organic pollutants present in the urine before reuse[9] or the dehydration of urine by using acids.[10]
The most common reuse of excreta is as fertilizer and soil conditioner in agriculture. This is also called a "closing the loop" approach for sanitation with agriculture. It is a central aspect of theecological sanitation approach.
Reuse options depend on the form of the excreta that is being reused: it can be either excreta on its own or mixed with some water (fecal sludge)[11] or mixed with much water (domestic wastewater or sewage).
The most common types of excreta reuse include:[6]
Resource recovery from fecal sludge can take many forms, including as a fuel, soil amendment, building material, protein, animal fodder, and water for irrigation.[11]
Reuse products that can be recovered from sanitation systems include: Storedurine, concentrated urine, sanitizedblackwater, digestate, nutrient solutions, dry urine, struvite, dried feces,pit humus, dewatered sludge, compost, ash from sludge,biochar, nutrient-enriched filter material,algae,macrophytes, black soldier fly larvae, worms,irrigation water,aquaculture, and biogas.[4]
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
There is an untapped fertilizer resource in human excreta. In Africa, for example, the theoretical quantities of nutrients that can be recovered from human excreta are comparable with all current fertilizer use on the continent.[6]: 16 Therefore, reuse can support increased food production and also provide an alternative to chemical fertilizers, which is often unaffordable to small-holder farmers. However, nutritional value of human excreta largely depends on dietary input.[2]
Mineral fertilizers are made from mining activities and can contain heavy metals. Phosphate ores contain heavy metals such as cadmium and uranium, which can reach the food chain via mineral phosphate fertilizer.[12] This does not apply to excreta-based fertilizers (unless the human's food was contaminated beyond safe limits to start with), which is an advantage.
Fertilizing elements of organic fertilizers are mostly bound in carbonaceous reduced compounds. If these are already partially oxidized as in the compost, the fertilizing minerals are adsorbed on the degradation products (humic acids) etc. Thus, they exhibit a slow-release effect and are usually less rapidly leached compared to mineral fertilizers.[13][14]
Urine contains large quantities ofnitrogen (mostly asurea), as well as reasonable quantities of dissolvedpotassium.[15] The nutrient concentrations in urine vary with diet.[16] In particular, the nitrogen content in urine is related to quantity of protein in the diet: Ahigh protein diet results in high urea levels in urine. The nitrogen content in urine is proportional to the total food protein in the person's diet, and the phosphorus content is proportional to the sum of total food protein and vegetal food protein.[17]: 5 Urine's eight main ionic species (> 0.1 meq L−1) arecationsNa,K,NH4,Ca, and theanions,Cl,SO4,PO4, andHCO3.[18] Urine typically contains 70% of the nitrogen and more than half the potassium found in sewage, while making up less than 1% of the overall volume.[15] The amount of urine produced by an adult is around 0.8 to 1.5 L per day.[3]
Applying urine as fertilizer has been called "closing the cycle of agricultural nutrient flows" or ecological sanitation orecosan. Urine fertilizer is usually applied diluted with water because undiluted urine canchemically burn the leaves or roots of some plants, causing plant injury,[19] particularly if the soil moisture content is low. The dilution also helps to reduce odor development following application. When diluted with water (at a 1:5 ratio for container-grownannual crops with fresh growing medium each season or a 1:8 ratio for more general use), it can be applied directly to soil as a fertilizer.[20][21] The fertilization effect of urine has been found to be comparable to that of commercial nitrogen fertilizers.[22][23] Urine may contain pharmaceutical residues (environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants).[24] Concentrations of heavy metals such aslead,mercury, andcadmium, commonly found in sewage sludge, are much lower in urine.[25]
Typical design values for nutrients excreted with urine are: 4 kg nitrogen per person per year, 0.36 kg phosphorus per person per year and 1.0 kg potassium per person per year.[17]: 5 Based on the quantity of 1.5 L urine per day (or 550 L per year), the concentration values of macronutrients as follows: 7.3 g/L N; .67 g/L P; 1.8 g/L K.[17]: 5 [26]: 11 These are design values but the actual values vary with diet.[15][a] Urine's nutrient content, when expressed with the international fertilizer convention of N:P2O5:K2O, is approximately 7:1.5:2.2.[26][b] Since urine is rather diluted as a fertilizer compared to dry manufactured nitrogen fertilizers such asdiammonium phosphate, the relative transport costs for urine are high as a lot of water needs to be transported.[26]
The general limitations to using urine as fertilizer depend mainly on the potential for buildup of excess nitrogen (due to the high ratio of that macronutrient),[20] and inorganicsalts such assodium chloride, which are also part of the wastes excreted by therenal system.Over-fertilization with urine or other nitrogen fertilizers can result in too much ammonia for plants to absorb, acidic conditions, or otherphytotoxicity.[24] Important parameters to consider while fertilizing with urine include salinity tolerance of the plant, soil composition, addition of other fertilizing compounds, and quantity of rainfall or other irrigation.[16] It was reported in 1995 that urine nitrogen gaseous losses were relatively high and plant uptake lower than with labelledammonium nitrate.[citation needed] In contrast,phosphorus was utilized at a higher rate than soluble phosphate.[18] Urine can also be used safely as a source of nitrogen in carbon-rich compost.[21]
Human urine can be collected with sanitation systems that utilizeurinals orurine diversion toilets. If urine is to be separated and collected for use as a fertilizer in agriculture, then this can be done with sanitation systems that utilize waterless urinals, urine-diverting dry toilets (UDDTs) orurine diversion flush toilets.[26] During storage, the urea in urine is rapidly hydrolyzed byurease, creatingammonia.[28] Further treatment can be done with collected urine to stabilize the nitrogen and concentrate the fertilizer.[29] One low-tech solution to odor is to addcitric acid orvinegar to the urine collection container, so that the urease is inactivated and any ammonia that do form are less volatile.[27] Besides concentration, simple chemical processes can be used to extract pure substances: nitrogen as nitrates (similar to medievalnitre beds) and phosphorus asstruvite.[29]
The health risks of using urine as a source of fertilizer are generally regarded as negligible, especially when dispersed in soil rather than on the part of a plant that is consumed. Urine can be distributed via perforated hoses buried ~10 cm under the surface of thesoil among crop plants, thus minimizing risk of odors, loss of nutrients due to votalization, or transmission ofpathogens.[30] There are potentially more environmental problems (such aseutrophication resulting from the influx of nutrient rich effluent into aquatic or marine ecosystems) and a higher energy consumption when urine is treated as part of sewage insewage treatment plants compared with when it is used directly as a fertilizer resource.[31][32]
In developing countries, the use of raw sewage orfecal sludge has been common throughout history, yet the application of pure urine to crops is still quite rare in 2021. This is despite many publications that advocate the use of urine as a fertilizer since at least 2001.[22][33] Since about 2011, theBill and Melinda Gates Foundation is providing funding for research involving sanitation systems that recover the nutrients in urine.[34]
According to the 2004 "proposed Swedish default values", an average Swedish adult excretes 0.55 kg nitrogen, 0.18 kg phosphorus, and 0.36 kg potassium as feces per year. The yearly mass is 51 kg wet and 11 kg dried, so that wet feces would have a NPK% value of 1.1:0.8:0.9.[17]: 5 [a][c]
Reuse of driedfeces from urine-diverting dry toilets after post-treatment can result in increased crop production through fertilizing effects of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and improvedsoil fertility through organic carbon.[35]
Compost derived fromcomposting toilets (where organic kitchen waste is in some cases also added to the composting toilet) has, in principle, the same uses as compost derived from other organic waste products, such assewage sludge or municipal organic waste. One limiting factor may be legal restrictions due to the possibility that pathogens remain in the compost. In any case, the use of compost from composting toilets in one's own garden can be regarded as safe and is the main method of use for compost from composting toilets. Hygienic measures for handling of the compost must be applied by all those people who are exposed to it, e.g. wearing gloves and boots.
Some of theurine will be part of the compost although some urine will be lost via leachate and evaporation.Urine can contain up to 90 percent of thenitrogen, up to 50 percent of thephosphorus, and up to 70 percent of the potassium present in human excreta.[36]
The nutrients in compost from a composting toilet have a higher plant availability than dried feces from a typical urine-diverting dry toilet. The two processes are not mutually exclusive, however: some composting toilets do divert urine (to avoid over-saturation of water and nitrogen) and dried feces can still be composted.[37]
Fecal sludge is defined as "coming from onsite sanitation technologies, and has not been transported through a sewer." Examples of onsite technologies include pit latrines, unsewered public ablution blocks, septic tanks and dry toilets. Fecal sludge can be treated by a variety of methods to render it suitable for reuse in agriculture. These include (usually carried out in combination) dewatering, thickening, drying (in sludge drying beds),composting, pelletization, andanaerobic digestion.[38]
Reclaimed water can be reused for irrigation, industrial uses, replenishing natural water courses, water bodies,aquifers, and other potable and non-potable uses. These applications, however, focus usually on the water aspect, not on the nutrients and organic matter reuse aspect, which is the focus of "reuse of excreta".
When wastewater is reused in agriculture, its nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) content may be useful for additional fertilizer application.[39] Work by theInternational Water Management Institute and others has led to guidelines on how reuse of municipal wastewater in agriculture for irrigation and fertilizer application can be safely implemented in low income countries.[40][3]
The use of treated sewage sludge (after treatment also called "biosolids") as a soil conditioner or fertilizer is possible but is a controversial topic in some countries (such as USA, some countries in Europe) due to the chemical pollutants it may contain, such as heavy metals and environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants.
Northumbrian Water in theUnited Kingdom uses two biogas plants to produce what the company calls "poo power"—using sewage sludge to produce energy to generate income. Biogas production has reduced its pre-1996electricity expenditure of 20 millionGBP by about 20%.Severn Trent andWessex Water also have similar projects.[41]
Sludge treatment liquids (after anaerobic digestion) can be used as an input source for a process to recover phosphorus in the form of struvite for use as fertilizer. For example, the Canadian company Ostara Nutrient Recovery Technologies is marketing a process based on controlled chemical precipitation of phosphorus in a fluidized bed reactor that recovers struvite in the form of crystalline pellets from sludge dewatering streams. The resulting crystalline product is sold to theagriculture,turf, andornamental plants sectors as fertilizer under the registered trade name "Crystal Green".[42]
In the case of phosphorus in particular, reuse of excreta is one known method to recover phosphorus to mitigate the potential shortage (also known as "peak phosphorus") of economical mined phosphorus. Mined phosphorus is a limited resource that is used up by fertilizer production, a shortage of which would threaten worldwidefood security. Therefore, phosphorus from excreta-based fertilizers is an interesting alternative to fertilizers containing mined phosphate ore.[43]
Research into how to make the reuse of urine and feces safe in agriculture has been conducted in Sweden since the 1990s.[16] In 2006 theWorld Health Organization (WHO) provided guidelines on safe reuse of wastewater, excreta, and greywater.[3] The multiple barrier concept to reuse, which is the key cornerstone of this publication, has led to a clear understanding of how excreta reuse can be done safely. The concept is also used in water supply and food production, and is generally understood as a series of treatment steps and other safety precautions to prevent the spread of pathogens.
The degree of treatment required for excreta-based fertilizers before they can be safely used in agriculture depends on several factors. It mainly depends on which other barriers will be put in place, according to the multiple-barrier concept. Such barriers might include selecting a suitable crop, farming methods, fertilizer application methods, farmers' education, and so forth.[44]
For example, in the case of urine-diverting dry toilets secondary treatment of dried feces can be performed at community level rather than at household level and can includethermophilic composting where fecal material is composted at over 50 °C, prolonged storage with a duration of 1.5 to two years, chemical treatment with ammonia from urine to inactivate the pathogens, solar sanitation for further drying or heat treatment to eliminate pathogens.[45][35]
_(5012011706).jpg)
Exposure of farm workers to untreated excreta constitutes a significant health risk due to itspathogen content. There can be a large amount of enteric bacteria, viruses, protozoa, andhelminth eggs in feces.[2] This risk also extends to consumers of crops fertilized with untreated excreta. Therefore, excreta needs to be appropriately treated before reuse, and health aspects need to be managed for all reuse applications, as excreta can still contain pathogens even after treatment.
Temperature is a treatment parameter with an established relationship to pathogen inactivation across all pathogen groups: Temperatures above 50 °C (122 °F) can inactivate most pathogens.[4]: 101 Therefore, thermal sanitization is utilized in several technologies, such as thermophilic composting and thermophilic anaerobic digestion, and potentially in sun drying. Alkaline conditions (pH value above 10) can also deactivate pathogens. This can be achieved with ammonia sanitization or lime treatment.[4]: 101
The treatment of excreta and wastewater for pathogen removal can take place:
Asindicator organisms in reuse schemes,helminth eggs are commonly used because they are among the most difficult to destroy in most treatment processes. The multiple barrier approach is recommended, where, e.g., lower levels of treatment may be acceptable when combined with other post-treatment barriers along the sanitation chain.[3]
Excreta from humans containshormones andpharmaceutical drug residues, which could in theory enter the food chain via fertilized crops, but are currently not fully removed by conventional wastewater treatment plants anyway, and can enter drinking water sources via household wastewater (sewage).[26] In fact, the pharmaceutical residues in the excreta are degraded better in terrestrial systems (soil) than in aquatic systems.[26]
Only a fraction of the nitrogen-based fertilizers is converted to produce plant matter. The remainder accumulates in the soil or is lost as run-off.[46] This also applies to excreta-based fertilizer since it also contains nitrogen. Excessive nitrogen, which plants do not take up, is transformed into nitrate, which is easily leached.[47] High application rates combined with the high water-solubility of nitrate leads to increasedrunoff intosurface water as well asleaching intogroundwater.[48][49][50] Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause 'blue baby syndrome' (acquiredmethemoglobinemia).[51] The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems forecosystems and for human health if they are washed off intosurface water or leached through the soil into groundwater.
Apart from use in agriculture, there are other possible uses of excreta. For example, in the case of fecal sludge, it can be treated and then serve as protein (black soldier fly process),fodder, fish food, building materials, andbiofuels (biogas from anaerobic digestion, incineration or co-combustion of dried sludge, pyrolysis of fecal sludge, and biodiesel from fecal sludge).[38][6]
Pilot scale research in Uganda and Senegal has shown that it is viable to use dry feces as for combustion in industry, provided it has been dried to a minimum of 28% dry solids.[52]
Dried sewage sludge can be burned insludge incineration plants and generate heat and electricity (thewaste-to-energy process is one example).
Resource recovery of fecal sludge as a solid fuel has been found to have high market potential inSub-Saharan Africa.[11]
Urine has also been investigated as a potential source ofhydrogen fuel.[53][54] Urine was found to be a suitable wastewater for high ratehydrogen production in amicrobial electrolysis cell (MEC).[53]
Small-scale biogas plants are being utilized in many countries, including Ghana,[55] Vietnam[56] and many others.[57] Larger centralized systems are being planned that mix animal and human feces to produce biogas.[52] Biogas is also produced during sewage sludge treatment processes with anaerobic digestion. Here, it can be used for heating the digesters and for generating electricity.[58]
Biogas is an important waste-to-energy resource which plays a huge role in reducing environmental pollution and most importantly in reducing greenhouse gases effect caused by the waste. Utilization of raw material such as human waste for biogas generation is considered beneficial because it does not require additional starters such as microorganism seeds for methane production, and a supply of microorganisms occurs continuously during the feeding of raw materials.[59]
Combination outhouses/feeding troughs were used in several countries since ancient times.[60] They are generally being phased out.
Pilot facilities are being developed for feedingblack soldier fly larvae with feces. The mature flies would then be a source of protein to be included in the production of feed for chickens in South Africa.[52]
Black soldier fly (BSF) bio-waste processing is a relatively new treatment technology that has received increasing attention over the last decades. Larvae grown on bio-waste can be a necessary raw material for animal feed production, and can therefore provide revenues for financially applicable waste management systems. In addition, when produced on bio-waste, insect-based feeds can be more sustainable than conventional feeds.[61]
It is known that additions of fecal matter up to 20% by dried weight in clay bricks does not make a significant functional difference to bricks.[52]
A Japanese sewage treatment facility extractsprecious metals from sewage sludge, "high percentage of gold found at the Suwa facility was probably due to the large number of precision equipment manufacturers in the vicinity that use [gold]. The facility recently recorded finding 1,890 grammes of gold per tonne of ash from incinerated sludge. That is a far higher gold content than Japan's Hishikari Mine, one of the world's top gold mines, [...] which contains 20–40 grammes of the precious metal per tonne of ore."[62] This idea was also tested by the US Geological Survey (USGS) which found that the yearly sewage sludge generated by 1 million people contained 13 million dollars' worth of precious metals.[62]
With pyrolysis, urine is turned into a pre-doped, highly porous, carbon material termed "urine carbon" (URC). URC is cheaper than currentfuel cell catalysts while performing better.[63]
The reuse of excreta as a fertilizer for growing crops has been practiced in many countries for a long time.
Debate is ongoing about whether reuse of excreta is cost effective.[64] The terms "sanitation economy" and "toilet resources" have been introduced to describe the potential for selling products made fromhuman feces orurine.[64][65]
The NGO SOIL inHaiti began building urine-diverting dry toilets and composting the waste produced for agricultural use in 2006.[66] SOIL's two composting waste treatment facilities currently transform over 20,000 U.S. gallons (76,000 liters) of human excreta into organic, agricultural-grade compost every month.[67] The compost produced at these facilities is sold to farmers, organizations, businesses, and institutions around the country to help finance SOIL's waste treatment operations.[68] Crops grown with this soil amendment include spinach, peppers, sorghum, maize, and more. Each batch of compost produced is tested for the indicator organismE. coli to ensure that complete pathogen kill has taken place during thethermophilic composting process.[69]
There is still a lack of examples of implemented policy where the reuse aspect is fully integrated in policy and advocacy.[70] When considering drivers for policy change in this respect, the following lessons learned should be taken into consideration: Revising legislation does not necessarily lead to functioning reuse systems; it is important to describe the "institutional landscape" and involve all actors; parallel processes should be initiated at all levels of government (i.e. national, regional and local level); country specific strategies and approaches are needed; and strategies supporting newly developed policies need to be developed).[70]
Regulations such as GlobalGood Agricultural Practices may hinder export and import of agricultural products that have been grown with the application of human excreta-derived fertilisers.[71][72]
TheEuropean Union allows the use of source separated urine only in conventional farming within the EU, but not yet in organic farming. This is a situation that many agricultural experts, especially in Sweden, would like to see changed.[25] This ban may also reduce the options to use urine as a fertilizer in other countries if they wish to export their products to the EU.[71]
In the United States, the EPA regulation governs the management ofsewage sludge but has no jurisdiction over the byproducts of a urine-diverting dry toilet. Oversight of these materials falls to the states.[73][74]
Treatment disposal of human excreta can be categorized into three types: fertilizer use, discharge and biogas use. Discharge is the disposal of human excreta to soil, septic tank or water body.[75] In China, with the impact of the long tradition, human excreta is often used as fertilizer for crops.[76] The main application methods are direct usage for crops and fruits as basal or top application after fermentation in a ditch for a certain period, compost with crop stalk for basal application and direct usage as feed for fish in ponds.[60] On the other hand, as much as many people rely on human waste as an agricultural fertilizer, if the waste is not properly treated, the use of night soil may promote the spread of infectious diseases.[77]
Urine is used as organic manure in India. It is also used for making an alcohol-based bio-pesticide: the ammonia within breaks down lignin, allowing plant materials likestraw to be more easily fermented into alcohol.
In Mukuru, Kenya, the slum dwellers are worst hit by the sanitation challenge due to a high population density and a lack of supporting infrastructure. Makeshift pit latrines, illegal toilet connections to the main sewer systems and lack of running water to support the flushable toilets present a sanitation nightmare in all Kenyan slums. The NGO Sanergy seeks to provide decent toilet facilities to Mukuru residents and uses the feces and urine from the toilets to provide fertilizer and energy for the market.[78]
Reuse of wastewater in agriculture is a common practice in the developing world. In a study inKampala, although famers were not using fecal sludge, 8% of farmers were using wastewater sludge as a soil amendment. Compost from animal manure and composted household waste are applied by many farmers as soil conditioners. On the other hand, farmers are already mixing their own feed because of limited trust in the feed industry and the quality of products.[52]
Electricity demand is significantly more than the electricity generation and only a small margin of the population nationally has access to electricity. The pellets produced from fecal sludge are being used in gasification for electricity production. Converting fecal sludge for energy could contribute toward meeting present and future energy needs.[79]
InTororo District in eastern Uganda—a region with severeland degradation problems—smallholder farmers appreciated urine fertilization as a low-cost, low-risk practice. They found that it could contribute to significant yield increases. The importance of social norms and cultural perceptions needs to be recognized but these are not absolute barriers to adoption of the practice.[80]
In Ghana, the only wide scale implementation is small scale rural digesters, with about 200 biogas plants using human excreta and animal dung as feedstock. Linking up of public toilets with biogas digesters as a way of improving communal hygiene and combating hygiene-related communicable diseases including cholera and dysentery is also a notable solution within Ghana.[52]
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)Minimize odors by adding white vinegar or citric acid to the urine collection container before any urine is added. We use 1-2 cups of white vinegar or 1 tablespoon of citric acid per 5-gallon container. Adding vinegar also helps reduce nitrogen loss (via ammonia volatilization) during short-term storage.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
