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Restorationism, also known asChristian primitivism, is a religious perspective holding that the early beliefs and practices of the followers ofJesus were either lost or adulterated afterhis death, and therefore required restoration.[1][2][3] It is a view that often "seeks to correct faults or deficiencies, in other branches ofChristianity, by appealing to the primitive church as normative model".[1]: 635
Efforts to restore an earlier, purer form of Christianity are frequently a response todenominationalism. AsRubel Shelly put it, "the motive behind all restoration movements is to tear down the walls of separation by a return to the practice of the original, essential and universal features of the Christian religion."[4]: 29 Different groups have attempted to implement the restorationist vision in various ways; for instance, some have focused on the structure and practice of the church, others on theethical life of the church, and still others on the direct experience of theHoly Spirit in the life of the believer.[1]: 635–638 The relative importance assigned to the restoration ideal, and the extent to which the full restoration of the early church is believed to have been achieved, also varies among groups.
More narrowly, the term "Restorationism" is used to describe a number of unrelated movements that arose during theGreat Awakenings, such as theChristadelphians (from the Greek for "Brothers of Christ"),Swedenborgians (i.e.,The New Church),Irvingians (the largest of which is theNew Apostolic Church),The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (i.e.,Mormonism),Jehovah's Witnesses (from thetetragrammaton for God),La Luz del Mundo (Spanish for "the Light of the World"), andIglesia ni Cristo (Tagalog for "Church of Christ").[5][6][7][8] In this sense, Restorationism has been regarded as one of the six taxonomic groupings ofChristianity: theChurch of the East,Oriental Orthodoxy,Eastern Orthodoxy,Roman Catholicism,Protestantism, and Restorationism.[9][10] These Restorationist groups share a belief that historic Christianity lost the true faith during theGreat Apostasy and that the Church needed to be restored.[11][12]
The term has been used in reference to theStone–Campbell Movement in the United States,[2]: 225–226 and has also been used by more recent groups describing their goal to re-establish Christianity in its original form, such as some anti-denominationalCharismatic Restorationists, which arose in the 1970s in the United Kingdom and elsewhere.[13][14]
The termsrestorationism,restorationist andrestoration are used in several senses withinChristianity. "Restorationism" in the sense of "Christian primitivism" refers to the attempt to correct perceived shortcomings of the current church by using theprimitive church as a model to reconstructearly Christianity,[1]: 635 and has also been described as "practicing church the way it is perceived to have been done in theNew Testament".[2]: 217
Restorationism is called "apostolic" as representing the form of Christianity that theTwelve Apostles followed. These themes arise early in church history, first appearing in the works ofIranaeus,[1]: 635 and appeared insome movements during the Middle Ages. It was expressed to varying degrees in the theology of theProtestant Reformation,[2]: 217 andProtestantism has been described as "a form of Christian restorationism, though some of its forms – for example theChurches of Christ – are more restorationist than others".[15]: 81–82
A number of historical movements within Christianity may be described as "restoration movements", including theGlasites in Scotland and England, the independent church led byJames Haldane andRobert Haldane in Scotland, the AmericanRestoration Movement, theLandmarkists and theMormons.[16]: 659pf A variety of more contemporary movements have also been described as "restorationist".[17][18] Restorationism has been described as a basic component of somePentecostal movements such as theAssemblies of God.[19]: 4–5 The terms "Restorationism movement" and "Restorationist movement" have also been applied to theBritish New Church Movement.[20]: 82–83
Capitalized, the term is also used as a synonym for the AmericanRestoration Movement.[2]: 225–226 [21] The term "restorationism" can also include the belief that the Jewish people must be restored to thepromised land in fulfillment of biblical prophecy before theSecond Coming ofChrist.[22]: 3 Christian restorationism is generally used to describe the 19th century movement based on this belief, though the termChristian Zionism is more commonly used to describe later forms.
The termprimitive,[23] in contrast with other uses, refers to a basis in scholarship and research into the actual writings of theChurch Fathers and other historical documents. Since written documents for the underground first-century church are sparse, the primitive church passed down its knowledge verbally. Elements of the primitive Christianity movement reject thepatristic tradition of the prolific extrabiblical 2nd- and 3rd-century redaction of this knowledge (theAnte-Nicene Fathers), and instead attempt to reconstruct primitive church practices as they might have existed in theApostolic Age. To do this, theyrevive practices found in the Old Testament. The termapostolic refers to a nonmainstream, often literal,apostolic succession or historical lineage tracing back to the Apostles and theGreat Commission. These restorationist threads are sometimes regarded critically as beingJudaizers in theEbionite tradition.[24]
The restoration ideal has been interpreted and applied in a variety of ways.[1]: 635 Four general historical models can be identified based on the aspect of early Christianity that the individuals and groups involved were attempting to restore.[1]: 635 These are:
Ecclesiastical primitivism focuses on restoring theecclesiastical practices of the early church.[1]: 635 Thedidache, an early Christian treatise predominantly dated to the first century, describes a central role of central itinerant apostles, as well as community-based elders and deacons elected by the community.[25]Huldrych Zwingli,John Calvin and thePuritans all advocated ecclesiastical primitivism.[1]: 635, 636 The strongest advocate of ecclesiastical primitivism in theUnited States wasAlexander Campbell.[1]: 636
Ethical primitivism focuses on restoring the ethical norms and commitment todiscipleship of the early church.[1]: 636 Ethical commitments and norms are described in first century primitive Christian writings: Pauline writings reject gentiles taking on the “yoke of slavery;” thedidache of Syria does not require gentile Christians to keep the full law perfectly, but instructs them to “keep as much [of the law]… as they can ‘bear’.”[25]
The movement often requires observance of universal commandments, such as abiblical Sabbath as given toAdam and Eve in theGarden of Eden, and theHebrew calendar to define years, seasons, weeks, and days.Circumcision, animal sacrifices, and ceremonial requirements, as practiced in Judaism, are distinguished from theTen Commandments,Noahide laws[26] andHigh Sabbaths[27] as given to, and in effect for, all humanity. TheSermon on the Mount and particularly theExpounding of the Law warn againstantinomianism, the rejection of biblical teachings concerning observance of the Law.[28]
TheAnabaptists,Barton W. Stone and theHoliness Movement are examples of this form of restorationism.[1]: 636, 637
Experiential primitivism focuses on restoring the direct communication with God and the experience of theHoly Spirit seen in the early church.[1]: 637 Examples include theLatter Day Saint movement ofJoseph Smith andPentecostalism.[1]: 637, 638
Gospel primitivism may be best seen in the theology ofMartin Luther.[1]: 638 Luther was not, in the strictest sense, a restorationist because he saw human effort to restore the church asworks righteousness and was sharply critical of otherReformation leaders who were attempting to do so.[1]: 638 On the other hand, he was convinced that the gospel message had been obscured by theRoman Catholic Church of the time.[1]: 638 He also rejected church traditions he considered contrary to Scripture and insisted onscripture as the sole authority for the church.[29]: 23
These models are not mutually exclusive, but overlap; for example, the Pentecostal movement sees a clear link between ethical primitivism and experiential primitivism.[1]: 635, 637
According to American Jewish historianBarbara Tuchman, beginning in about 1470 a succession ofPopes focused on the acquisition of money, their role in Italian politics as rulers of thepapal states and power politics within thecollege of cardinals.[30] Restorationism[31] at the time was centered on movements that wanted to renew the church, such as theLollards, theBrethren of the Common Life,[32] theHussites, andGirolamo Savonarola's reforms inFlorence.[33]
While these pre-reformation movements did presage and sometimes discussed a break with Rome and papal authority, they also provoked restorationist movements within the church, such as the councils of Constance[34] and Basle,[35] which were held in the first half of the 15th century.
Preachers at the time regularly harangued delegates to these conferences regardingsimony,venality, lack ofchastity andcelibacy, and the holding of multiplebenefices.[36] The lack of success of the restorationist movements led, arguably, to theProtestant Reformation.[30]
The Protestant Reformation came about through an impulse to repair the Church and return it to what the reformers saw as its original biblical structure, belief, and practice,[37] and was motivated by a sense that "the medieval church had allowed its traditions to clutter the way to God with fees and human regulations and thus to subvert the gospel of Christ."[29]: 21 At the heart of the Reformation, in the view of later Protestants, was an emphasis on "scripture alone" (sola scriptura).[29]: 22–23
As a result, the authority of church tradition, believed to have taken practical precedence over scripture, was rejected.[29]: 22 The Protestant Reformation was not a monolithic movement, but consisted of at least three identifiable sub-currents.[29]: 21 One was centered inGermany, one was centered inSwitzerland, and the third was centered inEngland.[29]: 21 While these movements shared some common concerns, each had its own particular emphasis.[29]: 21
TheLutheran approach can be described as one of "reformation," seeking "to reform and purify the historic, institutional church while at the same time preserving as much of the tradition as possible."[29]: 21 TheLutheran Churches traditionally sees themselves as the "main trunk of the historical Christian Tree" founded by Christ and the Apostles, holding that during the Reformation, at theCouncil of Trent, theChurch of Rome fell away.[38][39] As such, theAugsburg Confession, the Lutheran confession of faith, teaches that "the faith as confessed by Luther and his followers is nothing new, but the true catholic faith, and that their churches represent the true catholic or universal church".[40] When the Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession toCharles V, Holy Roman Emperor, they explained "that each article of faith and practice was true first of all to Holy Scripture, and then also to the teaching of the church fathers and the councils".[40]
In contrast, theReformed approach can be described as one of "restoration," seeking "to restore the essence and form of the primitive church based on biblical precedent and example; tradition received scant respect."[29]: 21 WhileLuther focused on the question "How can we find forgiveness of sins?", the early Reformed theologians turned to theBible for patterns that could be used to replace traditional forms and practices.[29]: 24 Heinrich Bullinger andMartin Bucer in particular emphasized the restoration of biblical patterns.[29]: 29–31 John Calvin reflected an intermediate position between that of Luther and Reformed theologians such asZwingli, stressing biblical precedents for church governance, but as a tool to more effectively proclaim thegospel rather than as ends in themselves.[29]: 291, 22
Luther opposed efforts to restore "biblical forms and structures,"[29]: 112 because he saw human efforts to restore the church as works righteousness.[1]: 638 He did seek the "marks of the true church," but was concerned that by focusing on forms and patterns could lead to the belief that by "restoring outward forms alone one has restored the essence."[29]: 117 Thus, Luther believed that restoring the gospel was the first step in renewing the church, rather than restoring biblical forms and patterns.[29]: 118 In this sense, Luther can be described as a gospel restorationist, even though his approach was very different from that of other restorationists.[1]: 638 [29]: 121
Protestant groups have generally accepted history as having some "jurisdiction" in Christian faith and life; the question has been the extent of that jurisdiction.[41]: 5 A commitment to history and primitivism are not mutually exclusive; while some groups attempt to give full jurisdiction to the primitive church, for others theapostolic "first times" are given only partial jurisdiction.[41]: 5, 6
Perhaps the most primitivist minded of the Protestant Reformation era were a group of scholars within the Church of England known as theCaroline Divines, who flourished in the 1600s during the reigns ofCharles I andCharles II. They regularly appealed to the Primitive Church as the basis for their reforms.[42] Unlike many other Christian Primitivists, the Church of the England and the Caroline Divines did not subject Scriptural interpretation to individual human reason, but rather to the hermeneutical consensus of the Church Fathers, holding to the doctrine of Prima Scriptura as opposed to Sola Scriptura.[43] They did not hold to the separatist ecclesiology of many primitivist groups, but rather saw themselves as working within the historic established church to return it to its foundation in Scripture and the patristic tradition.[42] Among the Caroline Divines were men like Archbishop William Laud, Bishop Jeremy Taylor, Deacon Nicholas Ferrar and the Little Gidding Community and others.
Methodism
Methodism began in the 18th century as a Christian Primitivist movement within the Church of England. John Wesley and his brother Charles, the founders of the movement, were high church Anglican priests in the vein of the Caroline Divines, who had a deep respect for the Primitive Church, which they generally defined as the Church before the Council Of Nicea.[44] Unlike many other Christian Primitivists, the Wesleys and the early Methodists did not subject Scriptural interpretation to individual human reason, but rather to the hermeneutical consensus of the Ante-Nicene Fathers, holding to a view of authority more akin to Prima Scriptura rather than Sola Scriptura.[45]
They did not hold to the separatist ecclesiology of many primitivist groups, but rather saw themselves as working within the historic established church to return it to its foundation in Scripture and the tradition of the pre-Nicene Church.[46] John Wesley very regularly asserted Methodism's commitment to the Primitive Church, saying, "From a child I was taught to love and reverence the Scripture, the oracles of God; and, next to these, to esteem the primitive Fathers, the writers of the first three centuries. Next after the primitive church, I esteemed our own, the Church of England, as the most Scriptural national Church in the world."[47][48]
And, "Methodism, so called, is the old religion, the religion of the Bible, the religion of the primitive Church, the religion of the Church of England."[49] On his epitaph is written, "This GREAT LIGHT arose (By the Singular providence of GOD) To enlighten THESE NATIONS, And to revive, enforce, and defend, The Pure Apostolical DOCTRINES and PRACTICES of THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH…"[50]
During the First Great Awakening, a movement developed among theBaptists known asSeparate Baptists. Two themes of this movement were the rejection ofcreeds and "freedom in the Spirit."[29]: 65 The Separate Baptists saw scripture as the "perfect rule" for the church.[29]: 66 While they turned to the Bible for a structural pattern for the church, they did not insist on complete agreement on the details of that pattern.[29]: 67 This group originated inNew England, but was especially strong in theSouth where the emphasis on a biblical pattern for the church grew stronger.[29]: 67
In the last half of the 18th century it spread to the western frontier ofKentucky andTennessee, where the Stone and Campbell movements would later take root.[29]: 68 The development of the Separate Baptists in the southern frontier helped prepare the ground for theRestoration Movement, as the membership of both the Stone and Campbell groups drew heavily from among the ranks of the Separate Baptists.[29]: 67
Separate Baptist restorationism also contributed to the development of theLandmark Baptists in the same area at about the same time as the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement. Under the leadership ofJames Robinson Graves, this group looked for a precise blueprint for the primitive church, believing that any deviation from that blueprint would keep one from being part of the true church.[29]: 68
The ideal of restoring a "primitive" form of Christianity grew in popularity in the United States after theAmerican Revolution.[29]: 89–94 This desire to restore a purer form of Christianity played a role in the development of many groups during this period, known as the Second Great Awakening, including theMormons,Baptists andShakers.[29]: 89 Several factors made the restoration sentiment particularly appealing during this time period.[29]: 90–94
Camp meetings fueled the Second Great Awakening, which served as an "organizing process" that created "a religious and educational infrastructure" across the trans-Appalachian frontier that encompassed social networks, a religious journalism that provided mass communication, and church related colleges.[51]: 368
The American Restoration Movement aimed to restore the church and sought "the unification of all Christians in a single body patterned after the church of the New Testament."[4]: 54 While the Restoration Movement developed from several independent efforts to go back to apostolic Christianity, two groups that independently developed similar approaches to the Christian faith were particularly important to its development.[52]: 27–32 The first, led byBarton W. Stone began atCane Ridge, Bourbon County, Kentucky and called themselves simplyChristians. The second began in western Pennsylvania and Virginia, now West Virginia, and was led byThomas Campbell and his son,Alexander Campbell. They used the nameDisciples of Christ.
The Campbell movement was characterized by a "systematic and rational reconstruction" of the early church, in contrast to the Stone movement which was characterized by radical freedom and lack of dogma.[29]: 106–108 Despite their differences, the two movements agreed on several critical issues.[29]: 108 Both saw restoring apostolic Christianity as a means of hastening the millennium.[29]: 108 Both also saw restoring the early church as a route to Christian freedom.[29]: 108 Both believed that unity among Christians could be achieved by using apostolic Christianity as a model.[29]: 108
They were united, among other things, in the belief thatJesus is the Christ, the Son of God; that Christians should celebrate theLord's Supper on thefirst day of each week; and thatbaptism of adult believers by immersion in water is a necessary condition forsalvation. Because the founders wanted to abandon all denominational labels, they used the biblical names for the followers of Jesus that they found in the Bible.[53]: 27 The commitment of both movements to restoring the early church and to uniting Christians was enough to motivate a union between many in the two movements.[54]: 8, 9
With the merger, there was the challenge of what to call the new movement. Clearly, finding a biblical, non-sectarian name was important. Stone wanted to continue to use the name "Christians." Alexander Campbell insisted upon "Disciples of Christ". As a result, both names were used.[53]: 27–28 [55]: 125
The Restoration Movement began during, and was greatly influenced by, the Second Great Awakening.[51]: 368 While the Campbells resisted what they saw as the spiritual manipulation of the camp meetings, the Southern phase of the Awakening "was an important matrix of Barton Stone's reform movement" and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the Campbells.[51]: 368
The Restoration Movement has seen several divisions, resulting in multiple separate groups. Three modern groups originating in theU.S. claim the Stone-Campbell movement as their roots:Churches of Christ,Christian churches and churches of Christ, and theChristian Church (Disciples of Christ). Some see divisions in the movement as the result of the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism, with thechurches of Christ and theChristian churches and churches of Christ resolving the tension by stressing restoration while the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) resolved the tension by stressing ecumenism.[56]: 383 Non-U.S. churches associated with this movement include theChurches of Christ in Australia and theEvangelical Christian Church in Canada.[57][58]
John Thomas (April 12, 1805 – March 5, 1871), was a devout convert to the Restoration Movement after a shipwreck at sea on his emigration to America brought to focus his inadequate understanding of theBible, and what would happen to him at death. This awareness caused him to devote his life to the study of the Bible and he promoted interpretations of it which were at variance with the mainstream Christian views theRestoration Movement held. In particular he questioned the nature of man.
He held a number of debates with one of the leaders of the movement,Alexander Campbell, on these topics but eventually agreed to stop because he found the practice bestowed no further practical merits to his personal beliefs and it had the potential to create division. He later determined that salvation was dependent upon having the theology he had developed for baptism to be effective for salvation and published an "Confession and Abjuration" of his previous position on March 3, 1847. He was alsorebaptised.
Following his abjuration and rebaptism he went toEngland on a preaching tour in June 1848 including Reformation Movement churches,[59] Although his abjuration and his disfellowship in America were reported in the British churches magazines[60] certain churches in the movement still allowed him to present his views. Thomas also gained a hearing in Unitarian and Adventist churches through his promotion of the concept of "independence of thought" with regards to interpreting the Bible.
Through a process of creed setting and division the Christadelphian movement emerged with a distinctive set of doctrines incorporating Adventism,anti-trinitarianism, the belief that God is a "substantial and corporeal" being,objection to military service, alay-membership with full participation by all members, and other doctrines consistent with the spirit of the Restorationist movement.[61] One consequence of objection to military service was the adoption of the name Christadelphians to distinguish this small community of believers and to be granted exemption from military service in theAmerican Civil War.[61]
The New Church was founded on the basis of the theology ofEmanuel Swedenborg.[8] As such, it is often known as the Swedenborgian Church.[8] The New Church's view of God is that "Jesus is God incarnate, not (as certain interpretations of the traditional Christian trinity contend) an emanation of the Godhead."[62] The New Church propounds the doctrine ofCorrespondence, which teaches that "Every word or fact of the Bible corresponded to a spiritual truth or mystical truth."[62] Additionally, The New Church teaches that "Objects in the physical world have spiritual correspondences."[63]
TheCatholic Apostolic Church (Irvingian Church) was founded according to the theology ofEdward Irving (1792–1834), who taught that "God could work miracles in His Church as easily now as two thousand years ago."[64] Belonging to the Restorationist branch of Christianity, the Irvingian Churches teach that they "exercise the charismata of the Apostolic age".[5] The church was organised in 1835 with thefourfold ministry of "apostles, prophets, evangelists, and pastors."[65][5]
As a result ofschism within the Catholic Apostolic Church, other Irvingian Christian denominations emerged, including theOld Apostolic Church,New Apostolic Church,Reformed Old Apostolic Church andUnited Apostolic Church; of these, the New Apostolic Church is the largest Irvingian Christian denomination today, with 16 million members.[66][67] Irvingianism, possessing elaborateliturgies, teaches threesacraments:Baptism,Holy Communion andHoly Sealing.[5][68][69]
Adherents to the Latter Day Saint movement believe that founderJoseph Smith was aprophet of God, chosen to restore the primitive, apostolic church established by Jesus. Like other restorationist groups, members believe that the church and priesthood established by Jesus werewithdrawn from the Earth after the end of the apostolic age and before theFirst Council of Nicaea in 325.[70]
Unlike other reformers, who based their movements on their own interpretations of the Bible, Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery held that they were visited by John the Baptist to receive the Aaronic Priesthood. This restoration authorized members to receiverevelation from God in order to restore the original apostolic organization lost after the events of the New Testament.[70] According to Allen and Hughes, "[n]o group used the language of 'restoration' more consistently and more effectively than did the [Latter Day Saints] ... early Mormons seemed obsessed with restoring the ancient church of God."[29]: 94
According to Smith, Godappeared to him in 1820, instructing him that the creeds of the churches of the day were corrupted.[71] In addition to restoring the primitive church, Smith claimed to receive new and ongoing revelations. In 1830, he publishedThe Book of Mormon, withhim and witnesses declaring to be a translation through divine means from theGolden Plates he obtained froman angel.[citation needed]
The largest and most well known church in the Latter Day Saint movement isthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), followed byCommunity of Christ (formerly RLDS), and dozens ofother denominations.[citation needed] Members of the LDS Church believe that, in addition to Smith being the first prophet appointed by Jesus in the "latter days", every subsequentapostle andchurch president also serves in the capacity ofprophet, seer and revelator.[citation needed]
Some among theChurches of Christ have attributed the restorationist character of the Latter Day Saints movement to the influence ofSidney Rigdon, who was associated with the Campbell movement in Ohio but left it and became a close friend of Joseph Smith.[29]: 95 [72]: 544, 545 Neither the Mormons nor the early Restoration Movement leaders invented the idea of "restoration"; it was a popular theme of the time that had developed independently of both, and Mormonism and the Restoration Movement represent different expressions of that common theme.[29]: 95 [72]: 544, 545
The two groups had very different approaches to the restoration ideal.[72]: 545 The Campbell movement combined it with Enlightenment rationalism, "precluding emotionalism, spiritualism, or any other phenomena that could not be sustained by rational appeals to the biblical text."[72]: 545 The Latter Day Saints combined it with "the spirit of nineteenth-century Romanticism" and, as a result, "never sought to recover the forms and structures of the ancient church as ends in themselves" but "sought to restore the golden age, recorded in both Old Testament and New Testament, when God broke into human history and communed directly with humankind."[72]: 545 Mormons gave priority to current revelation.[citation needed] Primitive observances of "appointed times" like Sabbath were secondary tocontinuing revelation, similarly to theprogressive revelation held by some non-restorationist Christian theologians.[citation needed]
The "Great Apostasy", or loss of the original church Jesus established, has been cited with historical evidence of changes in Christian doctrine over time, scriptures prophesying of a coming apostasy before the last days (particularly2 Thessalonians 2:1–3,2 Timothy 4:3–4 andAmos 8:11–12) and corruption within the early churches that led to the necessity of theProtestant Reformation, which is seen as an important step towards the development of protected freedoms and speech required for a full restoration to be possible.[73]
Adventism is aChristian eschatological belief that looks for the imminentSecond Coming of Jesus to inaugurate theKingdom of God. This view involves the belief that Jesus will return to receive those who have died in Christ and those who are awaiting his return, and that they must be ready when he returns. Adventists are considered to be both restorationists andconservativeProtestants.[74][75]
The Millerites were the most well-known family of the Adventist movements. They emphasized apocalyptic teachings anticipating the end of the world, and did not look for the unity ofChristendom but busied themselves in preparation for Christ's return. Millerites sought to restore a prophetic immediacy and uncompromising biblicism that they believed had once existed but had long been rejected by mainstream Protestant and Catholic churches. From the Millerites descended the Seventh-day Adventists and the Advent Christian Church.
The Seventh-day Adventist Church grew out of the Adventist movement, in particular the Millerites. The Seventh-day Adventist Church is the largest of severalAdventist groups which arose from theMillerite movement of the 1840s in upstateNew York, a phase of theSecond Great Awakening. Important to the Seventh-day Adventist movement is a belief inprogressive revelation,[76] teaching that the Christian life and testimony is intended to be typified by theSpirit of Prophecy, as explained in the writings ofEllen G. White.
Much of the theology of the Seventh-day Adventist Church corresponds to Protestant Christian teachings such as the Trinity and theinfallibility of Scripture. Distinctive teachings include theunconscious state of the dead and the doctrine of aninvestigative judgment. The church is also known for its emphasis on diet and health, its holistic understanding of the person, its promotion of religious liberty, and its conservative principles and lifestyle.
TheWorldwide Church of God arose from theSeventh Day churches. The personal ministry ofHerbert W. Armstrong became theRadio Church of God, which became the Worldwide Church of God. It later splintered into many other churches and groups when the Worldwide Church of God disassociated itself with the Restoration movements and made major attempts to join the Protestant branch of Christianity. The largest of these groups, theLiving Church of God and theUnited Church of God, continue in the tradition of the Worldwide Church of God as it was under the leadership of Herbert W. Armstrong.
The Advent Christian Church is unaffiliated with Seventh-day Adventism, but considers itself the second "of six Christian denominations that grew out of the ministry of William Miller".[77] As a "first-day" body of Adventist Christians established byThe Advent Christian General Conference in 1860, the church's beliefs include "conditional immortality" and a form of "soul sleep".
Advent Christians such asGeorge Storrs andJonas Wendell influenced theBible Student movement.
In the 1870s, a Bible study group led byCharles Taze Russell formed into what was eventually called theBible Student movement. Russell's congregations did not consider him to be the founder of a new religion,[78] but that he helped in restoring true Christianity from theapostasy that Jesus and theApostle Paul foretold. They believed that other Churches departed in aGreat Apostasy from the original faith on major points, and that the original faith could be restored through a generally literal interpretation of the Bible and a sincere commitment to follow its teachings. They focused on several key doctrinal points that they considered a return to "primitive Christianity",[79] derived from their interpretation of the Bible, including activeproselytization; strict neutrality in political affairs;[80] abstinence from warfare;[81] a belief in the imminent manifestation of theKingdom of God (orWorld to Come) on Earth, and a rejection oftrinitarianism, theimmortality of the soul, and the definition ofHell as a place of eternal torment.[82]
Jehovah's Witnesses emerged as a distinct religious organization, maintaining control of Russell'sWatch Tower Bible and Tract Society andother corporations. They continued to develop doctrines that they considered to be an improved restoration offirst century Christianity, including increased emphasis on the use ofJehovah as God's personal name.[83]
The Plymouth Brethren is aconservative,Evangelical, restorationist movement whose origin can be traced toDublin,Ireland, in 1827.[84][85][86] The title, "The Brethren", is one that many of their number are comfortable with, in that theBible designates all believers as "brethren". The first English assembly was inPlymouth in 1831,[87] where the movement became well known and assemblies diffused throughout Europe and beyond.[88]
It was organised primarily byGeorge Wigram,Benjamin Wills Newton andJohn Nelson Darby.[89] The movement soon spread throughout the UK. By 1845, the first English assembly in Plymouth had over 1,000 souls in fellowship.[90]
They became known as "the brethren from Plymouth", and were soon simply called "Plymouth Brethren". By 1848, divergence of practice and belief led to the development of two separate branches. The rift was caused primarily by a difference of opinions betweenJohn Nelson Darby andBenjamin Wills Newton in regards toeschatology. Despite more divisions, assemblies are still often generalized into two main categories: "Open Brethren" and "Exclusive Brethren".[91]John Duncan criticized the Brethren movement saying "To end sectarianism, thePlymouth Brethren began by making a new sect, and that sect, of all sects, the most sectarian".[92][better source needed]
Pentecostalism began primarily as a restoration movement that focused on the "experiential" aspect of the early church.[93] The early pioneers of the Pentecostal movement sought to restore the work and power of the Holy Spirit to the church, which they felt had been lost early on after the Apostolic Age.Oneness Pentecostals, in particular, continue to have a lot of restorationist themes present in their movement. Many Oneness Pentecostals see their movement as being a restoration of the Apostolic Church, which is why many of them refer to themselves as "apostolic" or to their movement as the "Apostolic Pentecostal" movement.
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During the charismatic movement of the 1960s and 1970s, which focused on the transformation of the individual, some leaders formed what has become known as the Charismatic Restorationist Movement. These leaders, of whomArthur Wallis, David Lillie and Cecil Cousen were at the forefront, focused on the nature of the church and shared a distinctive view that authentic church order was being restored to the whole church. This authentic church order centred on what is referred to as the "fivefold ministries", as listed in Ephesians 4:11: Apostles, Prophets, Evangelists, Teachers and Pastors.[94]
Although the Charismatic Movement brought the Pentecostal gifts to the denominational churches, these restorationists considered denominationalism unbiblical, and shared a conviction that God would cause the church to be directly organized and empowered by the holy spirit. The movement has thousands of adherents worldwide, and notable church networks includeNewfrontiers led byTerry Virgo,Salt and Light Ministries International led byBarney Coombs, and theIchthus Christian Fellowship led by Faith andRoger Forster.[95]
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The British leaders of charismatic restorationism mutually recognised a parallel movement in the United States, centered on the Fort Lauderdale Five;Derek Prince,Don Basham, Bob Mumford, Charles Simpson and Ern Baxter. This movement became known as the Shepherding movement and was the subject of significant controversy in the mid-1970s. The movement left a significant legacy through its influence on contemporary ministriesInternational Churches of Christ,Maranatha Campus Ministries andGreat Commission International.
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More recently another form of charismatic restorationism with a similar recognition of theapostolic office has emerged in the form of the Apostolic-Prophetic Movement, centered on theKansas City Prophets. Leading proponents of the movement includeC. Peter Wagner,Rick Joyner,Mike Bickle andLou Engle.
The Church of God (Restoration) is a Christian denomination that was founded in the 1980s by Daniel (Danny) Layne.[96] In a booklet written by Layne in the early 1980s, he claimed to be an ex-heroin addict who spent years dealing drugs and living a life of crime and sin on the streets of San Francisco. Layne was originally raised in theChurch of God (Anderson), where his father was a minister. Layne began preaching in theChurch of God (Guthrie, Oklahoma) after his conversion.
One tenet of this group is that they are ordained by both prophecy and divine command to restore the church of God as it was in theBook of Acts.[97] Most of Daniel Layne's beliefs concerning thebook of Revelation originated from some ministers who had left the Church of God (Anderson) reformation movement thirty or so years earlier. This teaching is upheld by the officialeschatology, which is a form of churchhistoricism. This Church of God (Restoration)[98] teaches that the 7th Trumpet in the book of the Revelation began to sound around the year 1980 when Daniel Layne was saved, alleging that there was a general discontent among many of its current adherents that were in various Churches of God at that time. A variation of this "Seventh Seal message"[99] had been taught in other Churches of God for approximately 50 years prior to this point.
Iglesia ni Cristo began in thePhilippines and was incorporated byFelix Y. Manalo on July 27, 1914.[100][101] The church professes to be the reestablishment of the original church founded by Jesus Christ and teaches that the original church wasapostatized. It does not teach the doctrine of the Trinity or the divinity of Jesus.[102]Iglesia ni Cristo does not subscribe to the termRestoration, nor does it claim to be a part of theRestorationist Movement.[citation needed]
La Luz del Mundo (full name:Iglesia del Dios Vivo, Columna y Apoyo de la Verdad, La Luz del Mundo) was founded inMexico on 6 April 1926 by Eusebio Joaquín González (14 August 1896 – 9 June 1964), who claimed that God called him to be anapostle of Jesus Christ and renamed him Aarón. Joaquín claimed that he was commissioned to restore the primitive Christian church of the first century CE. The church, headquartered inGuadalajara, Mexico, asserts that all other forms of Christianity are corruptions that arose after the last of the original apostles died, and rejects traditional Christian doctrines such astrinitarianism,original sin,veneration of saints, and thedivinity of Jesus.
It continues to claim that it is the restoration of primitive Christianity and that its leaders, including Aarón Joaquín, his son,Samuel Joaquín Flores (1937–2014), and his grandson,Naasón Joaquín García (born 1969), who is the church's international director, are apostles responsible for the restoration, without whom it would be impossible for people to truly believe in Jesus and be saved.
The Apostolic Catholic Church started as a mainstreamCatholic lay organization that was founded inHermosa, Bataan in the early 1970s by Maria Virginia P. Leonzon Vda. De Teruel.[103] In 1991, the organisation and theRoman Catholic Church had aschism; due to varying issues, it formally separated itself from the Roman Catholic Church, whenJohn Florentine Teruel was consecrated as a patriarch and registered the church as aProtestant andIndependent Catholic denomination.[103] The Church describes itself as atraditionalist Church which aims to bring backancient Catholic Church traditions removed by previous councils and Popes.
Thelocal churches are a Christian movement influenced by the teachings ofJ.N. Darby,Watchman Nee andWitness Lee and associated with theLiving Stream Ministry publishing house. Its members see themselves as separate from other Christian groups, denominations, and movements, part of what they sometimes call "The Lord's Recovery". One of the defining features of the local churches is their adherence to the principle that all Christians in a city or locality are automatically members of the one church in that locality. Another defining feature is the lack of an official organization or official name for the movement. Those in the local churches believe that to take a name would divide them from other believers. Thus, they often say they meet with "the church in [city name]" with the understanding that they are not the only church but belong to the same church as every believer in their city.[104]
Jesuism is the personalphilosophy encompassing the teachings ofJesus of Nazareth and commitment or adherence tothose teachings.[105] Jesuism is distinct from and sometimes opposed to mainstreamChristianity, the organized religion based on theChristian Bible.[106] In particular, Jesuism is distinguished from the writings attributed to theApostle Paul and frommodern Church doctrine.[107][108] Jesuism is not necessarily critical of the Christian Bible or Church doctrine, but rather it does not affirm their authority over the teachings of Jesus. As a philosophy, Jesuism is characterized asnaturalistic andrationalist, rejecting the conflict betweenfaith andscience.[109]
World Mission Society Church of God is a non-denominational Christian movement founded byAhn Sahng-Hong in 1964. The church claims to be a restoration of the original Church of God and has teachings differing from other Christian denominations. After Ahn Sahng-hong died in February 1985, a group of people in Church of God Jesus Witnesses including the man Kim Joo-cheol and the womanZahng Gil-jah wanted to re-introduce the concept of a "spiritual mother". In March 1985, they moved from Busan to Seoul. At a meeting in Seoul in June 1985, they discussed how to call Zahng Gil-jah, and established a church called Witnesses of Ahn Sahng-hong Church of God which is led by Kim Joo-cheol and Zahng Gil-jah. Two major new doctrines were codified:
Ahn Sahng-hong should be regarded as Jesus Christ who had already come, should be titled Christ Ahn Sahng-hong, and pursuant to a traditional trinitarian view of Christian hypostasis Ahn was consequently also The Holy Spirit, God the Father, and thus God.Zahng Gil-jah should be regarded as God the Mother, a female image of God, be titled Heavenly Mother, or simply Mother, and together with Ahn Sahng-hong be regarded as God.[110]
"Restorationism" is also used to describe a form ofpostmillennialism developed during the later half of the 20th century, which was influential among a number ofcharismatic groups and theBritish new church movement.[111]: 57–58
Restitutionism,[112] is the belief "in an only temporary future punishment and a final restoration of all to the favour and presence of God; a Universalist."[113] Some dictionaries give "restorationist" as a synonym for this.
Christian restorationism, a 19th-century movement promoting restoration of Jews to the Holy land, which later became known asChristian Zionism.
The Catholic critique of primitivism and restorationism presents arguments or claims such as the following:
The Restorationists are usually totally ignorant of what the early Church was really like. They assume is that the early church was congregational, not hierarchical. They assume it was non liturgical and non sacramental. They assume it was Bible based. They assume there was no clergy and that the congregation met in people’s homes. They don’t have any evidence for these assumptions, and all of these assumptions are simply not true, or if they were true in some isolated places they are not the whole truth. [...]
The reason the Primitivists are ignorant of what the primitive Church was really like is because they are largely unaware of the writings of the Early Church fathers. Most of them do not know that we have documents telling us just what the early Christians believed, how they worshipped, how the Church was structured.
This ignorance is not only the lack of education, it is also the result of the Protestant dogma ofsola Scriptura.
— Fr. Dwight Longenecker[117]
There are also numerous semi-restorationist tendencies that are part of Catholic tradition, such as theRenaissancead fontes humanist imperative and the modernressourcement theology. Themonastic urge to live according to theevangelical counsels may be seen as a kind of primitivism that resorts to the words of Christ rather than implied behaviours in the Book of Acts.
From this nexus at Albury Park would eventually emerge the openly-restorationist Catholic Apostolic Church, in which both Drummond and London Scots preacher, Edward Irving (1792-1834), would figure prominently. Significant for the purposes of this discussion is the fact that the Catholic Apostolic Church would distinguish itself not only for its bold claim to exercise the charismata of the Apostolic age, but also for its lavish liturgies borrowed from the pre-Reformation church, both East and West.
The Second Great Awakening (1790-1840) spurred a renewed interest in primitive Christianity. What is known as the Restoration Movement of the nineteenth century gave birth to an array of groups: Mormons (The Latter Day Saint Movement), the Churches of Christ, Adventists, and Jehovah's Witnesses. Though these groups demonstrate a breathtaking diversity on the continuum of Christianity they share an intense restorationist impulse. Picasso and Stravinsky reflect a primitivism that came to the fore around the turn of the twentieth century that more broadly has been characterized as a "retreat from the industrialized world."
However, Swedenborg claimed to receive visions and revelations of heavenly things and a 'New Church', and the new church which was founded upon his writings was a Restorationist Church. The three nineteenth-century churches are all examples of Restorationist Churches, which believed they were refounding the Apostolic Church, and preparing for the Second Coming of Christ.
For example, Christianity comprises six major groups: Church of the East, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, Protestantism and Restorationism.
Like other Restorationists, Russell held the theory of the Great Apostasy, the belief that Christianity had fallen away from its original purity. To the simple early message of Christianity, he believed, later teachers and political leaders had added unwarranted beliefs and practices.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)When the Lutherans presented theAugsburg Confession before Emperor Charles V in 1530, they carefully showed that each article of faith and practice was true first of all to Holy Scripture, and then also to the teaching of the church fathers and the councils and even the canon law of the Church of Rome. They boldly claim, "This is about the Sum of our Doctrine, in which, as can be seen, there is nothing that varies from the Scriptures, or from the Church Catholic, or from the Church of Rome as known from its writers" (AC XXI Conclusion 1). The underlying thesis of theAugsburg Confession is that the faith as confessed by Luther and his followers is nothing new, but the true catholic faith, and that their churches represent the true catholic or universal church. In fact, it is actually the Church of Rome that has departed from the ancient faith and practice of the catholic church (see AC XXIII 13, XXVIII 72 and other places).
In the 1990s the New Apostolic Church had almost 300 apostles with 60,000 congregations comprising 16 million members globally.
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