Throughout its history, the Genoese Republic establishednumerous colonies throughout the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, includingCorsica from 1347 to 1768,Monaco,Southern Crimea from 1266 to 1475, and the islands ofLesbos andChios from the 14th century to 1462 and 1566, respectively.[3] With the arrival of theearly modern period, the Republic had lost many of its colonies, and shifted its focus to banking. This was successful for Genoa, which remained a hub ofcapitalism, with highly developed banks and trading companies.
Genoa was known asla Superba ("the Superb One"),la Dominante ("The Dominant One"),la Dominante dei mari ("the Dominant of the Seas"), andla Repubblica dei magnifici ("the Republic of the Magnificents"). From the 11th century to 1528, it was officially known as theCompagna Communis Ianuensis and from 1580 as theSerenìscima Repùbrica de Zêna (Most Serene Republic of Genoa). From 1339 until the state's extinction in 1797, the ruler of the republic was thedoge, originally elected for life, after 1528 elected for terms of two years; in practice, the republic was anoligarchy ruled by a small group ofmerchant families, from whom the doges were selected.
TheGenoese navy played a fundamental role in the wealth and power of the Republic over the centuries and its importance was recognized throughout Europe.[4][5] To this day, its legacy as a key factor in the triumph of the Genoese Republic is still recognized, and its coat of arms is depicted in theflag of the Italian Navy. In 1284, Genoa fought victoriously against theRepublic of Pisa in theBattle of Meloria for dominance over theTyrrhenian Sea, and it was an eternal rival ofVenice for dominance in the Mediterranean as a whole.
The republic began whenGenoa became a self-governingcommune in the 11th century and ended when it was conquered by theFrench First Republic underNapoleon and replaced with theLigurian Republic. The Ligurian Republic was annexed by theFirst French Empire in 1805; its restoration was briefly proclaimed in 1814 following the defeat of Napoleon, but it was annexed by theKingdom of Sardinia in 1815.
From the 11th century to 1528 it was officially known as theCompagna Communis Ianuensis and from 1580 as theSerenìscima Repùbrica de Zêna (theMost Serene Republic of Genoa) or alsoRepubblica di Genova (Latin:Res Publica Ianuensis,Ligurian:Repúbrica de Zêna). It was nicknamed byPetrarch asLa Superba, in reference to its glory and impressive landmarks. For over eight centuries the republic was also known asla Dominante ('The Dominant one'),la Dominante dei mari ('the Dominant of the Seas'), andla Repubblica dei magnifici ('the Republic of the Magnificents').[6][7]
After the fall of theWestern Roman Empire, the city ofGenoa was invaded by Germanic tribes, and, in about 643, Genoa and other Ligurian cities were captured by theLombard Kingdom under the KingRothari. In 773 the Kingdom was annexed by theFrankish Empire; the first Carolingian count of Genoa was Ademarus, who was given the titlepraefectus civitatis Genuensis.[8] During this time and in the following century Genoa was little more than a small centre, slowly building itsmerchant fleet, which was to become the leading commercial carrier of the Western Mediterranean. In 934–35 the town wasthoroughly sacked and burned by aFatimid fleet underYa'qub ibn Ishaq al-Tamimi.[9] This has led to discussion about whether early tenth-century Genoa was "hardly more than a fishing village" or a vibrant trading town worth attacking.[10]
In the year 958, a diploma granted byBerengar II of Italy gave full legal freedom to the city of Genoa, guaranteeing the possession of its lands in the form of landed lordships.[11] At the end of the11th century the municipality adopted a constitution, at a meeting consisting of the city'strade associations (compagnie) and of the lords of the surrounding valleys and coasts. The new city-state was termed aCompagna Communis. The local organization remained politically and socially significant for centuries. As late as 1382, the members of the Grand Council were classified by both thecompagnia to which they belonged as well as by their political faction ("noble" versus "popular").[12]
In theMahdia campaign of 1087, supported byPope Victor III, Italian forces led byHugh of Pisa attacked the North AfricanZirid vassals of theFatimid Caliphate. Genoese and Pisan fleets, accompanied by troops fromAmalfi,Salerno, andGaeta, captured the Zirid capital, but could not hold it. The Genoese and Pisan burned the fleet in the city's harbour and withdrew. The destruction of the Arab fleet gave control of the Western Mediterranean to Genoa, Venice, and Pisa. This enabled Western Europe to supply the troops of theFirst Crusade of 1096–1099 by sea.[16]
After the capture of Antioch on 3 May 1098, Genoa forged an alliance withBohemond of Taranto, who became the ruler of thePrincipality of Antioch. As a result, he granted them a headquarters, the church of San Giovanni, and 30 houses in Antioch. On 6 May 1098, a part of the Genoese army returned to Genoa with the relics ofSaint John the Baptist, granted to the Republic of Genoa as part of their reward for providing military support to the First Crusade.[18] Many settlements in the Middle East were given to Genoa as well as favourablecommercial treaties.[18]
Genoa later allied with KingBaldwin I of Jerusalem (reigned 1100–1118). To secure the alliance, Baldwin gave Genoa one-third of theLordship of Arsuf, one-third ofCaesarea, and one-third ofAcre and its port's income.[18] Additionally the Republic of Genoa would receive 300bezants every year, and one-third of Baldwin's conquest every time 50 or more Genoese soldiers joined his troops.[18]
The Republic's role as a maritime power in the region secured many favourable commercial treaties for Genoese merchants. They came to control a large portion of the trade of theByzantine Empire,Tripoli (Libya), thePrincipality of Antioch,Cilician Armenia, and Egypt.[18] Although Genoa maintained free-trading rights in Egypt and Syria, it lost some of its territorial possessions after Saladin's campaigns in those areas in the late 12th century.[19][20]
In 1147, Genoa took part in the Siege ofAlmería, helpingAlfonso VII of León and Castile reconquer that city from the Muslims. After the conquest the republic leased out its third of the city to one of its own citizens,Otto de Bonvillano, who swore fealty to the republic and promised to guard the city with three hundred men at all times.[21] This demonstrates how Genoa's early efforts at expanding her influence involvedenfeoffing private citizens to the commune and controlling overseas territories indirectly, rather than through the republican administration. In 1148, it joined theSiege of Tortosa and helped CountRaymond Berengar IV of Barcelona take that city, for which it also received a third.
Over the course of the 11th and particularly the 12th centuries, Genoa became the dominant naval force in the Western Mediterranean, as its erstwhile rivals Pisa and Amalfi declined in importance. Genoa (along with Venice) succeeded in gaining a central position in the Mediterranean slave trade at this time. This left the Republic with only one major rival in the Mediterranean: Venice. TheGenoese slave trade and theVenetian slave trade were the main players of the slave trade in the Mediterranean during the Middle Ages.
Genoese Crusaders brought home a green glass goblet from theLevant, which Genoese long regarded as theHoly Grail. Not all of Genoa's merchandise was so innocuous, however, as medieval Genoa became a major player inthe slave trade.[22]
The commercial and cultural rivalry between Genoa and Venice played out throughout the thirteenth century. TheRepublic of Venice played a significant role in theFourth Crusade, diverting "Latin" energies to the ruin of its former patron and present trading rival,Constantinople. As a result, Venetian support of the newly establishedLatin Empire meant that Venetian trading rights were enforced, and Venice gained control of a large portion of the commerce of the eastern Mediterranean.[19]
As a result, the balance of favour tipped toward Genoa, which was granted free trade rights in the Nicene Empire. Besides the control of commerce in the hands of Genoese merchants, Genoa received ports and way stations in many islands and settlements in theAegean Sea.[19] The islands ofChios andLesbos became commercial stations of Genoa as well as the city ofSmyrna (İzmir).
Territories of the Republic of Genoa (economic influence areas shown in pink) around the mediterranean & Black Sea coasts, 1400, since theCodex Latinus Parisinus (1395).
Genoa and Pisa became the only states with trading rights in theBlack Sea.[19] In the same century the Republic conquered many settlements inCrimea, where the Genoese colony ofCaffa was established. The alliance with the restored Byzantine Empire increased the wealth and power of Genoa and simultaneously decreased Venetian and Pisan commerce. TheByzantine Empire had granted the majority of free trading rights to Genoa. In 1282Pisa tried to gain control of the commerce and administration ofCorsica, after being called for support by the judge Sinucello who revolted against Genoa.[23] In August 1282, part of the Genoese fleet blockaded Pisan commerce near the riverArno.[23] During 1283 both Genoa and Pisa made war preparations. Genoa built 120 galleys, 60 of which belonged to the Republic, while the other 60 galleys were rented to individuals. More than 15,000 mercenaries were hired as rowmen and soldiers. The Pisan fleet avoided combat, and tried to wear out the Genoese fleet during 1283. On 5 August 1284, in the navalBattle of Meloria the Genoese fleet, consisting of 93 ships led byOberto Doria andBenedetto I Zaccaria, defeated the Pisan fleet, which consisted of 72 ships and was led byAlbertino Morosini andUgolino della Gherardesca. Genoa captured 30 Pisan ships and sank seven.[23] About 8,000 Pisans were killed during the battle, more than half of the Pisan troops, which were about 14,000.[23] The defeat of Pisa, which never fully recovered as a maritime competitor, resulted in gain of control of the commerce of Corsica by Genoa. The Sardinian town ofSassari, which was under Pisan control, became acommune or self-styled"free municipality" which was controlled by Genoa. Control of Sardinia, however, did not pass permanently to Genoa: the Aragonese kings of Naples disputed control and did not secure it until the fifteenth century.
Genoese merchants pressed south, to the island of Sicily, and into Muslim North Africas, where Genoese established trading posts, pursuing the gold that travelled up through the Sahara and establishing Atlantic depots as far afield asSalé andSafi.[24] In 1283 the population of theKingdom of Sicily revolted against theAngevin rule. The revolt became known as theSicilian Vespers. As a result, theAragonese rule was established in the Kingdom. Genoa, which had supported the Aragonese, was granted free trading and export rights in the Kingdom of Sicily. Genoese bankers also profited from loans to the new nobility of Sicily. Corsica was formally annexed in 1347.[25]
Genoa was far more than a depot of drugs and spices from the East: an essential engine of its economy was the weaving of silk textiles, from imported thread, following the symmetrical styles ofByzantine and Sassanian silks.
As a result of the economic retrenchment in Europe in the late fourteenth century, as well as its longwar with Venice, which culminated in itsdefeat at Chioggia (1380), Genoa went into decline. This pivotal war with Venice has come to be called the War of Chioggia because of this decisive battle which resulted in the defeat of Genoa at the hands of Venice.[26] Prior to the War of Chioggia, which lasted from 1379 until 1381, the Genoese had enjoyed a naval ascendency that was the source of their power and position within northern Italy.[27] The Genoan defeat deprived Genoa of this naval supremacy, pushed it out of eastern Mediterranean markets and began the decline of the city-state.[27] RisingOttoman power also cut into the Genoese emporia in the Aegean, and the Black Sea trade was reduced.[28]
In 1396, in order to protect the republic from internal unrest and the provocations of theDuke of Orléans and theformer Duke of Milan, the Doge of GenoaAntoniotto Adorno madeCharles VI of France thedifensor del comune ("defender of the municipality") of Genoa. Though the republic had previously been under partial foreign control, this marked the first time Genoa was dominated by a foreign power.[29]
Though not well-studied, Genoa in the 15th century seems to have been tumultuous. The city had a strong tradition of trading goods from the Levant and its financial expertise was recognised all over Europe. After a brief period of French domination from 1394 to 1409, Genoa came under the rule of theVisconti of Milan. Genoa lostSardinia to theCrown of Aragon,Corsica to internal revolt, and its colonies in the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and Asia Minor to theOttoman Empire.[29]
In the 15th century, two of the earliest banks in the world were founded in Genoa: theBank of Saint George, founded in 1407, which was the oldest state deposit bank in the world at its closure in 1805, and themount of piety ofGenoa was founded in 1483 and it still exists.[30]
Map showing the political divisions of Italy in 1499
Threatened byAlfonso V of Aragon, the Doge of Genoa in 1458 handed the Republic over to the French, making it the Duchy of Genoa under the control ofJohn of Anjou, a French royal governor. However, with support from Milan, Genoa revolted and the Republic was restored in 1461. The Milanese then changed sides, conquering Genoa in 1464 and holding it as a fief of the French crown.[31][32][volume needed][33] Between 1463–1478 and 1488–1499,[clarification needed] Genoa was held by the MilaneseHouse of Sforza.[29] From 1499 to 1528, the Republic reached its nadir, being under nearly continual French occupation. The Spanish, with their intramural allies, the "old nobility" entrenched in the mountain fastnesses behind Genoa, captured the city on May 30, 1522, and subjected the city to a pillage. When the admiralAndrea Doria of the powerfulDoria family allied with theEmperor Charles V to oust the French and restore Genoa's independence, a renewed prospect opened: 1528 marks the first loan from Genoese banks to Charles.[34]
Under the ensuing economic recovery, many aristocratic Genoese families, such as the Balbi, Doria, Grimaldi, Pallavicini, and Serra, amassed tremendous fortunes. According toFelipe Fernández-Armesto and others, the practices Genoa developed in the Mediterranean (such aschattel slavery) were crucial in the exploration and exploitation of the New World.[35][full citation needed]
A view of Genoa and its fleet by Christoforo de Grassi (1597 copy, after a drawing of 1481); Galata Museo del Mare, Genoa
Thereafter, Genoa underwent something of a revival as a junior associate of theSpanish Empire, with Genoese bankers, in particular, financing many of the Spanish crown's foreign endeavors from theircounting houses in Seville.Fernand Braudel has even called the period 1557 to 1627 the "age of the Genoese", "of a rule that was so discreet and sophisticated that historians for a long time failed to notice it".[36] However, the modern visitor passing brilliant Mannerist and Baroque palazzo facades along Genoa'sStrada Nova (now Via Garibaldi) orvia Balbi cannot fail to notice that there was conspicuous wealth, which in fact was not Genoese but concentrated in the hands of a tightly knit circle of banker-financiers, true "venture capitalists". Genoa's trade, however, remained closely dependent on control of Mediterranean sealanes, and the loss ofChios to theOttoman Empire (1566), struck a severe blow.[37]
The opening for the Genoese banking consortium was thestate bankruptcy ofPhilip II in 1557, which threw the German banking houses into chaos and ended the reign of theFuggers as Spanish financiers. The Genoese bankers provided the unwieldy Habsburg system with fluid credit and a dependably regular income. In return the less dependable shipments of American silver were rapidly transferred from Seville to Genoa, to provide capital for further ventures.
From about 1520 the Genoese controlled the Spanishport of Panama, the first port on the Pacific, founded by the conquest of the Americas. The Genoese obtained a concession to exploit the port mainly for the slave trade of the new world on the Pacific, which lasted until the sacking and destruction of the original city in 1671.[3][38]
In 1635, DonSebastián Hurtado de Corcuera, who had been governor of Panama, recruited Genoese, Peruvian, and Panamanian soldiers to fight in thePhilippines, where he had been appointed governor, against the Muslim Sultanates ofSulu andMaguindanao.[39] In this situation Genoese bankers were thus active in Spain's Mediterranean and New World possessions (Peru, Mexico, and Philippines).[40]
The Genoese bankerAmbrogio Spinola, Marquess of Los Balbases, for instance, raised and led an army that fought in theEighty Years' War in the Netherlands in the early 17th century. The decline of Spain in the 17th century brought also the renewed decline of Genoa, and the Spanish crown's frequent bankruptcies, in particular, ruined many of Genoa's merchant houses. In 1684 the city washeavily bombarded by a French fleet as punishment for its alliance with Spain.
In May 1625, a French-Savoian army briefly laid siege to Genoa. Though it was eventuallylifted with the aid of the Spanish, the French would laterbombard the city in May 1684 for its support of Spain during theWar of the Reunions.[41] In-between, aplague killed as many as half of the inhabitants of Genoa in 1656–57.[42] Genoa continued its slow decline well into the 18th century, losing its lastMediterranean colony, the island fortress ofTabarka, to theBey of Tunis in 1742.[43]
Ancient map of Genoa as it was inside the "old walls"; attributed to Francesco Maria Accinelli (1700–1777)
In a climate of constant economic and power decline, in 1729 the Republic had to face another revolt in Corsica. It is considered the first moment of real rupture between the island and the Genoese Republic: perhaps the most important, because the representatives of theChurch in full harmony with theRoman Curia, "justified" the war.[44] This time the Genoese government requested the help ofCharles VI, who sent 10,000 German infantry of theImperial Army, after the payment by Genoa of 60,000florins and 100scudi for each dead soldier, joining the Republic's soldiers commanded by Camillo Doria. Genoa managed to contain the rebellion, however this did not prove lasting.[45][46] Another revolt broke out in 1733, causing the Genoese to again appeal to the Emperor, but the Imperial Army was tied up against the French in the ongoingWar of the Polish Succession, and thus declined to intervene. Even before the rebellions, Genoa's control of the island had been loose; the Republic had effectively demilitarized itself, with only 2,000 soldiers (all spread throughout fortifications in Liguria) for a mainland population of about half a million, and law and order on Corsica were very weak, with nearly 900 homicides per 100,000 people there annually from 1701 to 1733. The Genoese government tried to ban private firearm ownership on Corsica without success. A guerrilla war would continue on the island until it was sold to France in 1768.[47]
TheConvention of Turin of 1742, in whichAustria allied with theKingdom of Sardinia, caused some consternation in the Republic. However, when this provisional relationship was given a more durable and reliable character in the signing of theTreaty of Worms, in 1743, the fear of diplomatic isolation had caused the Genoese Republic to abandon its neutrality and to ally with theHouse of Bourbon in theWar of the Austrian Succession. Consequently, the Republic of Genoa signed a secret treaty with the Bourbon allies ofKingdom of France,Spanish Empire andKingdom of Naples. On 26 June 1745, the Republic of Genoa declared war on the Kingdom of Sardinia.[48] This decision would prove disastrous for Genoa, which later surrendered to the Austrians in September 1746 and was briefly occupied before a revolt liberated the city two months later. The Austrians returned in 1747 and, along with a contingent of Sardinian forces,laid siege to Genoa before being driven off by the approach of a Franco-Spanish army.
Though Genoa retained its lands in thePeace of Aix-la-Chapelle, it was unable to keep its hold onCorsica in its weakened state. After driving out the Genoese, theCorsican Republic was declared in 1755. Eventually relying on French intervention to quash the rebellion, Genoa was forced to cede Corsica to the French in the 1768Treaty of Versailles.
The end of the Republic and its brief revival of 1814
In 1794 and 1795 the revolutionary echoes from France reached Genoa, thanks to Genoese exile propagandists sheltered nearby in southeastern France, and a conspiracy against the aristocratic and oligarchic ruling class developed. In 1796, the French army underNapoleondefeated Austria and Piedmont, gaining control of the region. In May 1797, GenoeseJacobins, aided by French volunteers, moved to overthrow DogeGiacomo Maria Brignole, giving rise to a fratricidal war in the streets between opponents and supporters of the government.[49]
Napoleon's representatives then intervened. In early June, the old elites who had ruled Genoa for all of its history were overthrown. On June 14, 1797, theLigurian Republic was proclaimed, under the watchful care ofRepublican France. After Bonaparte's seizure of power in France, a more conservative constitution was enacted, but the Ligurian Republic's life was short: in 1805 it was annexed by France, becoming thedépartements ofApennins,Gênes, andMontenotte.[49]
With the fall of Napoleon, Genoa regained an ephemeral independence, as theRepubblica genovese, which lasted less than a year. However, the subsequentCongress of Vienna decreed the annexation of all Genoese territories (all of Liguria, the Oltregiogo area, and the island ofCapraia) by theKingdom of Sardinia, ruled by theHouse of Savoy, even though contravening the principle of restoring legitimate governments and monarchies.[15]
The history of Genoa, of the Genoese and of the republic that held its fate for a long time, but also of the governments that gradually took turns leading the city, to reach the time of the Doges, is traceable through the work of historians who have continued the storytelling work begun at the end of the 11th century byCaffaro Di Caschifellone (historian and himself municipal consul) with the "Annales ianuenses".[50]
The Republic of Genoa's governance history is divided into five stages:
The republic was substantially democratic in shape, while those of the Podestàs and the Captains of the people strongly restored the often conflicting relationship between the authority and the freedom. The perpetual doges, on the other hand, proclaimed themselves popular, even though sometimes crossing the oligarchy; finally the fifth republic was institutionally aristocratic. By custom, prelates in Genoa were unable to take on public office.[51]
Coat of arms of the Fregoso family, one of the most influential dynasties in the history of the republic.
In the first two centuries from the institution of the Dogate for life in Genoa, it was above all theAdorno (seven doges elected) andFregoso (ten doges elected) families who fought the position.[52]
After the reform of 1528, among the seventy-nine "biennial Doges" who came to power, many were elected from a small number of noble houses in the city organized into 28 "Alberghi", in particular:
Assereto, Ayroli, Canevaro, Chiavica Cibo, Clavarezza, Da Passano, De Ferrari, De Fornari, De Marini, Di Negro, Ferreti, Franzoni, Frugoni, Garbarino, Giudice Calvi, Odone, Saluzzo, Senarega, Vacca and Vivaldi: one doge each
At the time of its founding in the early 11th century the Republic of Genoa consisted of the city ofGenoa and the surrounding areas. As thecommerce of the city increased, so did the territory of the Republic. By the end of the 12th century all ofLiguria fell under the Republic of Genoa. After theFirst Crusade in 1098 Genoa gained settlements inSyria. (It lost the majority of them during the campaigns ofSaladin in the 12th century.) In 1261 the city ofSmyrna inAsia Minor became Genoese territory.[19]
Between 1316 and 1332, Genoa established theBlack Sea colonies ofLa Tana (present-day Azov) andSamsun inAnatolia. In 1355, the Byzantine EmperorJohn V Palaiologos grantedLesbos toa Genoese lord. At the end of the 14th century the colony of Samastri was established in the Black Sea andCyprus was granted to the Republic. At that period the Republic of Genoa also controlled one quarter ofConstantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire, andTrebizond, capital of theEmpire of Trebizond.[53] TheOttoman Empire conquered most of the Genoese overseas territories during the 15th century.[53]
Crimea (Gazaria): Genoese colonies along the southern coast of Crimea, including Caffa (modern-day Feodosia), from 1266 to 1475, lost to theOttoman Empire (Kefe Eyalet).
Genoese traders bought salt – from Hyères near Toulon in French Provence, from Cagliari in Sardinia, Tortosa in Iberia, and from other areas in the Black Sea, North Africa, Cyprus, Crete, and Ibiza – and madesalami. They then sold salami in southern Italy for raw silk, which was sold in Lucca for fabrics, which were then sold to Lyon. Mule caravans from Genoa carried salt directly toPiacenza, where it was transferred to river barges and transported down thePo toParma, and otherPo Valley cities such asReggio andBologna. Along these trade routes, Genoa competed withVenice for salt and for other cargoes, such as salami, prosciutto, cheese, textiles and spices.[54]
^Mallone Di Novi, Cesare Cattaneo (1987).I "Politici" del Medioevo genovese: il Liber Civilitatis del 1528 (in Italian). pp. 184–193.
^Kirk, Thomas Allison (2005).Genoa and the Sea: Policy and Power in an Early Modern Maritime Republic. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 8.ISBN0-8018-8083-1.
^abG. Benvenuti.Le Repubbliche Marinare: Amalfi, Pisa, Genova, Venezia. Newton & Compton editori, Roma 1989; Armando Lodolini,Le repubbliche del mare, Biblioteca di storia patria, 1967, Roma.
^J. F. Fuller (1987).A Military History of the Western World, Volume I. Da Capo Press. p. 408.ISBN0-306-80304-6.
^John Bryan Williams, "The Making of a Crusade: The Genoese Anti-Muslim Attacks in Spain, 1146–1148".Journal of Medieval History23 1 (1997): 29–53.
^Steven A. Epstein,Speaking of Slavery: Color, Ethnicity, and Human Bondage in Italy (Conjunctions of Religion and Power in the Medieval Past.
^abcdWilliam Ledyard Rodgers (1967).Naval warfare under oars, 4th to 16th centuries: a study of strategy, tactics and ship design. Naval Institute Press. pp. 132–34.ISBN0-87021-487-X.
^H. Hearder and D.P. Waley, eds,A Short History of Italy (Cambridge University Press) 1963:68.
^Vincent Ilardi,The Italian League and Francesco Sforza – A Study in Diplomacy, 1450–1466 (Doctoral dissertation – unpublished: Harvard University, 1957) pp. 151–153, 161–62, 495–498, 500–505, 510–512.
^Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pope Pius II),The Commentaries of Pius II, eds. Florence Alden Gragg, trans., and Leona C. Gabel (13 books; Smith College: Northampton, Massachusetts, 1936–37, 1939–40, 1947, 1951, 1957) pp. 369–70.
^Vincent Ilardi and Paul M. Kendall, eds. (1981),Dispatches of Milanese Ambassadors, 1450–1483. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press. vol. III, p. xxxvii.
^Felipe Fernández-Armesto.Before Columbus: Exploration and Colonization from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, 1229–1492.
^Braudel, Fernand (1984).The Perspective of the World. Civilization and capitalism. Vol. 3. Translated by Reynolds, Siân. New York: Harper & Row. p. 157.ISBN9780006860792.
^Philip P. Argenti,Chius Vincta or the Occupation of Chios by the Turks (1566) and Their Administration of the Island (1566–1912), Described in Contemporary Diplomatic Reports and Official Dispatches (Cambridge, 1941), Part I.
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