Repoussé (French:[ʁəpuse]ⓘ) orrepoussage ([ʁəpusaʒ]ⓘ) is ametalworking technique in which amalleable metal is shaped byhammering from the reverse side to create a design inlow relief.Chasing (French:ciselure) orembossing is a similar technique in which the piece is hammered on the front side, sinking the metal. The two techniques are often used in conjunction.
Many metals can be used for chasing and repoussé work, includinggold,silver,copper, and alloys such assteel,bronze, andpewter.
These techniques are very ancient and have been extensively used all over the world, as they require only the simplest tools and materials, and yet allow great diversity of expression. They are also relatively economical, since there is no loss or waste of metal, which mostly retains its original size and thickness. Toolmarks are often intentionally left visible in the result.
A few among many famous examples of repoussé and chasing are theGundestrup cauldron, the mask on the mummy ofTutankhamun, thebody armours of theBronze Age, the copper ornaments made by theNative Americans in the Southeastern United States, and theStatue of Liberty in New York City.
The wordrepoussé isFrench and means "pushed up", ultimately fromLatinpulsare, which means "to push". Repoussage is thenoun to refer to the technique, withrepoussé being anadjective referring to a piece to which the technique has been applied (e.g. "repoussé work", "repoussé piece").
Chasing comes from the French word,chasser meaning to drive out, or to chase around which is what the artists are doing as they "chase" the forms on their metal in order to create their final design.
The techniques of repoussé and chasing date from Antiquity and have been used widely withgold andsilver for fine detailed work and withcopper,tin, andbronze for larger sculptures.
During the 3rd millennium BC, in the Middle East, a variety of semi-mass production methods were introduced to avoid repetitive free-hand work. With the simplest technique, sheet gold could be pressed into designs carved inintaglio in stone, bone, metal or even materials such asjet. The gold could be worked into the designs with wood tools or, more commonly, by hammering a wax or lead "force" over it.
The alternative to pressing gold sheet into a die is to work it over a design in cameo relief. Here the detail would be greater on the back of the final design, so some final chasing from the front was often carried out to sharpen the detail.
The use of patterned punches dates back to the first half of the2nd millennium BC, if not far earlier. The simplest patterned punches were produced by loops or scrolls of wire.
TheGundestrup cauldron (a product of theCeltic culture, made between 150 BC and 1 AD) had originally thirteen separate silver panels, with repoussérelief, lining the inside and outside of the vessel.
In 1400 BC, the EgyptianAmarna period, resin and mud for repoussé backing was in use.
A fine example of Egyptian repoussé is the mummy mask ofTutankhamun, aPharaoh of the lateEighteenth Dynasty. The majority of the mask was formed using the technique of repoussé from what appears to be a single sheet of gold. The lapis lazuli and other stones were inlaid in chased areas after the height of the form was completed. The ceremonial beard,Nekhbet vulture, andUraeus were attached separately.
ByHellenistic times, combined punches and dies were in use. In 400 BC, the Greeks were using beeswax for filler in repoussé.
Classical pieces using repoussage and chasing include thebronzeGreek armour plates from the 3rd century BC.
TheWarren Cup is a Roman silver cup, and theMildenhall Treasure, theHoxne Hoard, theWater Newton Treasure and theBerthouville Treasure are examples ofhoards of Roman silver found inEngland and northernFrance with many pieces using these techniques. Another example piece using this technique isThe Stag’s Head Rhyton, dating to around 400 BCE, which is made from a silver sheet and features three scenes of warriors battling, each scene with two warriors.[2][3][4]
Repoussé and chasing are commonly used inIndia to create objects such as water vessels. These vessels are generally made using sheets ofcopper orsilver.
Repoussage and chasing were used by many Pre-Columbian civilizations in the Americas, such as theChavín culture ofPeru (about 900 to 200 BC), to make ornaments of gold and other metals.
During theHopewell andMississippian periods of the AmericanSoutheast andMidwest goods of repoussé copper were fashioned as ritual regalia and eventually used in prestige burials.[5] Examples have been found with many S.E.C.C. designs such asBi-lobed arrow motif headdresses andfalcon dancer plaques. Although examples have been found in a widely scattered area (Spiro,Oklahoma,Etowah,Georgia, andMoundville,Alabama), most are in what is known as theBraden Style, thought to have originated at theCahokia Site inCollinsville, Illinois.[6][7] Several copper workshops discovered during excavations ofMound 34 at Cahokia are the only known Mississippian culture copper workshops.[8][9]
The largest knownsculpture created with this technique is theStatue of Liberty, properlyLiberté éclairant le monde, ("Liberty Enlightening The World"), inUpper New York Bay. The statue was formed bycopper repoussé in sections using wooden structures to shape each piece during the hammering process.
The process of chasing and repoussé requires a number of steps.
The metal plate should usually beannealed—that is, heated for some time at a temperature sufficient toreduce its internal stresses—to make it asmalleable as possible. This process may have to be repeated several times, as many metalsharden and become brittle as they are deformed by the hammering.
The plate must then be fixed on a suitable support. A commonly used technique is to place the metal over a layer ofchasers pitch. The pitch is heated until it is soft enough to make good contact with the metal, filling all its crevices, and then allowed to cool. At room temperature, the pitch must be hard enough to adhere to the metal and hold it in place, but still soft andplastic enough to "give" as the metal is hammered into it.
The pitch is often cast as a thick layer over some softer backing material that can absorb larger deformations.
The metal plate will have to be released from the pitch several times, for turning it over and/or for re-annealing. Pitch residues stuck to the plate must be removed with an appropriatesolvent.
Once the plate is firmly held by the pitch, front side up, the outline of the desired design is lightly chased ("lined") on it by a special tool (a "liner"), that creates narrow raised lines on the other side.
The metal is turned over, and firmed again over the pitch, with the back side up. The main repoussé work is then performed, using a variety of punches.
Once the main repoussé is done, the piece is again released by heating. The cavities on the back side, created by the repoussé work, are filled with melted pitch. Once that filling has hardened, the plate is again turned over and placed on top of a layer of softened pitch. Once the pitch has hardened, the design is then refined by chasing. These procedures can be repeated several times, alternating between repoussé and chasing.
Repoussé and chasing can also be done on materials, likesteel, that are too hard to be cold-formed by hammering. That is accomplished by heating the piece to a high enough temperature to make it malleable, as inforging. In this case pitch must be dispensed with, or replaced by some material (like sand) that can withstand the heat and provide the right kind of "giving" support.
The tools needed for these techniques are[10]
Other tools are usually handy, such astweezers ortongs to hold the hot plates.
The punches are usually made of steel, especiallytool steel—a hard alloy that can keep its shape even after years of use—and areforged andtempered at the tip. They usually have a beveled rear end, to better handle the hammer blows. They can be purchased and used as such, modified by the user to suit the needs of a specific work, or made by the user from bar stock.[11] To make or reform the punches, one needs asaw or other cutting device, as well as agrinder and abrasives to shape and polish the tip.
%2c_found_on_the_bed_of_the_Corbulo_Canal_(Fossa_Corbulonis)_near_the_Roman_fort_of_Matilo_(modern_Leiden)%2c_Rijksmuseum_van_Oudheden%2c_Leiden%2c_Netherlands_(9570875526).jpg)
