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Religious use of incense has its origins in antiquity. The burnedincense may be intended as a symbolic or sacrificial offering to variousdeities or spirits, or to serve as an aid inprayer.
The earliest documented use of incense comes from the ancient Sudanese. Archaeological discoveries atQustul, a site in LowerNubia in northernSudan have revealed one of the earliest known incense burners, dating to theA-Group culture around 3300-3000 BCE.[1][2][3] TheQustul incense burner, made of ceramic and adorned with iconography such as processions and what some scholars interpret as royal emblems, suggests that incense and its ritual use were already well-developed in Nubian religious and political life.[4][5] It was used in the Indus Valley Civilisation by the c. 2600–1900 BC,[6] and Egyptians during theFifth Dynasty, 2345-2494 BC.[7]
In ancientNubia, incense use can be traced back to theA-Group culture and the earliest known Nubian kingdom,Ta-Seti, centered in Lower Nubia. Archaeological excavations atQustulCemetery L uncovered ceramic incense burners dating to c. 3000 BCE, one of which bears iconography associated with kingship such as white crown of Upper Egypt and sacred boat motifs.[8] These finds led scholars to propose that ritual use of incense and royal ceremonial practices may have originated or co-developed inSudan prior to early dynastic Egypt.[9]
In laterKushite periods (especiallyNapatan andMeroitic, 800 BCE–350 CE), incense continued to feature prominently in both temple rituals and burial practices. Inscriptions at temples inGebel Barkal,Naqa, andMusawwarat es-Sufra reference offerings of aromatic substances toAmun,Apedemak, and other deities, indicating the continuation of complex incense rituals well into thefirst millennium BCE.[10]
Inpharaonic Egypt, incense was integral to temple ceremonies, funerary rites, and divine offerings. From the Old Kingdom (c. 2600 BCE), scenes in tombs and temples depict priests burning incense before statues of gods and kings. Resins likekyphi,myrrh, andfrankincense were believed to carry prayers to the heavens, cleanse ritual spaces, and embody the breath of the gods.[11]
Texts such as thePyramid Texts andBook of the Dead refer to incense as a sacred offering linked to deities likeRa,Osiris, andHorus. Its fragrance was seen as pleasing to the gods and essential for maintainingma’at (cosmic order) in ritual space. By theNew Kingdom (1550–1070 BCE), incense was a state-managed commodity, imported through expeditions to Punt, and burned daily in temples across Egypt.[12] Incense also played a role in household altars and personal piety among non-elite Egyptians.
Incense use in religious ritual was either further or simultaneously developed inChina, and eventually transmitted toKorea,Japan,Myanmar,Vietnam,Laos,Cambodia,Thailand,Indonesia,Malaysia,Singapore, and thePhilippines. Incense holds an invaluable role in East Asian Buddhist ceremonies and rites as well as in those of ChineseTaoist and JapaneseShinto shrines for the deityInari Okami, or theSeven Lucky Gods. It is reputed to be a method of purifying the surroundings, bringing forth an assembly of buddhas, bodhisattvas, gods, demons, and the like.
In Chinese Taoist and Buddhist temples, the inner spaces are scented with thick coiled incense, which are either hung from the ceiling or on special stands. Worshipers at the temples light and burn sticks of incense in small or large bundles, which they wave or raise above the head while bowing to the statues or plaques of a deity or an ancestor. Individual sticks of incense are then vertically placed into individual censers located in front of the statues or plaques either singularly or in threes, depending on the status of the deity or the feelings of the individual.
In Japanese Shinto shrines toInari Okami or theSeven Lucky Gods and Buddhist temples, the sticks of incense are placed horizontally into censers on top of the ash since the sticks used normally lack a supporting core that does not burn.
The formula and scent of theincense sticks used in various temples throughout Asia vary widely.
The use of incense in Christianity is inspired by passages in theBible; its use in prayer and worship carries with it aChristian symbolism.[13] Incense has been employed in worship by Christians since antiquity, particularly in theRoman Catholic Church/Eastern Catholic Church,Orthodox Christian churches,Lutheran Churches,Old Catholic/Liberal Catholic Churches and someAnglican Churches. Incense is being increasingly used among some other Christian groups as well; for example, inMethodism, theBook of Worship ofThe United Methodist Church calls for incense in the Evening Praise and Prayer service.[14] The practice is rooted in the earlier traditions ofJudaism in the time of theSecond Jewish Temple.[15] The smoke of burning incense is interpreted by both the Western Catholic and Eastern Christian churches as a symbol of the prayer of the faithful rising to heaven.[16] This symbolism is seen inPsalm 141 (140), verse 2: "Let my prayer be directed as incense in thy sight: the lifting up of my hands, as evening sacrifice." Incense is often used as part of a purification ritual.[17]
In theRevelation of John, incense symbolises theprayers of thesaints inheaven – the "golden bowl full of incense" are "theprayers of thesaints" (Revelation 5:8, cf.Revelation 8:3) which infuse upwards towards the altar ofGod.
Athurible, a type ofcenser, is used to contain incense as it is burned.[18] A server called athurifer, sometimes assisted by a"boat bearer" who carries the receptacle for the incense, approaches the person conducting the service with the thurible charged with burning bricks of red-hot charcoal. Incense, in the form of pebbly grains or powder, is taken from what is called a "boat", and usually blessed with a prayer and spooned onto the coals. The thurible is then closed, and taken by the chain and swung by the priest, deacon or server or acolyte towards what or who is being censed: the bread and wine offered for theEucharist, the consecrated Eucharist itself, theGospel during its proclamation (reading), thecrucifix, theicons (in Eastern churches), the clergy, the congregation, the Paschal candle or the body of a deceased person during a funeral.[19]
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Incense may be used in Christian worship at the celebration of theEucharist, at solemn celebrations of theDivine Office, in particular atSolemn Vespers, atSolemn Evensong, atfunerals, benediction and exposition of the Eucharist, the consecration of a church or altar and at other services.[20] In theEastern Orthodox Church, Lutheran churches ofEvangelical Catholic churchmanship, Anglican churches ofAnglo-Catholic churchmanship, and Old Catholic/Liberal Catholic churches, incense is used at virtually every service.[21]
Aside from being burnt, grains of blessed incense are placed in thePaschal candle,[22] and were formerly placed in thesepulchre of consecratedaltars, though this is no longer obligatory or even mentioned in the liturgical books.
Many formulations of incense are currently used, often withfrankincense,benzoin,myrrh,styrax,copal or other aromatics.
Incense in India has been used since 3,600 BC.[23][24] The use of incense is a traditional and ubiquitous practice in almost allpujas, prayers, and other forms of worship. As part of the daily ritual worship within the Hindu tradition, incense is offered toGod (usually by rotating the sticks thrice in a clockwise direction) in his various forms, such asKrishna andRama. This practice is still commonplace throughout modern-day India andHindus all around the world. It is said in theBhagavad Gita that, "Krishna accepts the offering made to Him with love", and it is on this principle that articles are offered each day bytemple priests or by those with an altar in their homes and businesses.
Traditionally, theBenzoin resin and resin obtained from theCommiphora wightii tree were used as incense in ancient India. These resins would be spilled over embers which would give out perfumed smoke. However, the majority of the modern-dayIncense of India is mostly of a chemical base rather than the natural ingredients.
Incense is used in several events such as the Tahfidh graduation ceremony, and most notably the regular rite of purifying and cleansing theKa'aba inMakkah. It is to perfume the air and uplift the souls of pilgrims. According to ahadith (tradition of theIslamic prophetMuhammad):
The first group of people, who will enterParadise, will be glittering like the full moon and those who will follow them, will glitter like the most brilliant star in the sky. They will not urinate, relieve nature, spit, or have any nasal secretions. Their combs will be of gold, and their sweat will smell likemusk. The aloes-wood will be used in their censers. Their wives will behûr al-ʿayn ("lovely-eyed"). All of them will look alike and will resemble their fatherAdam in being sixty cubits tall.[25]
The 'ketoret' is the incense described in theBible for use in theTemple. Its composition and usage is described in greater detail inmidrash, theTalmud and subsequent rabbinic literature. Although it was not produced following the destruction of theSecond Temple in 70 CE, some Jews study the composition of the ancient Temple incense for future use in arestored Temple as part of dailyJewish services.
Contemporary Judaism still uses aromatic spices in one ritual, theHavdalah ceremony ending the Sabbath. In addition, there is ablessing for pleasant smells.
InMandaeism, incense (Mandaic:riha) is offered on stands calledkinta byMandaean priests to establishlaufa (communion) between humans inTibil (Earth) anduthras (celestial beings) in theWorld of Light during rituals such as themasbuta (baptism) andmasiqta (death mass), as well as duringpriest initiation ceremonies.[26] Various prayers in theQulasta are recited when incense is offered.[27] Incense must be offered during specific stages of the typically lengthy and complex rituals.
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