Religious texts, includingscripture, aretexts which variousreligions consider to be of central importance to their religious tradition. They often feature a compilation or discussion of beliefs, ritual practices, moral commandments andlaws, ethical conduct, spiritual aspirations, and admonitions for fostering a religious community.
Within each religion, these texts are revered as authoritative sources of guidance, wisdom, anddivine revelation. They are often regarded as sacred or holy, representing the core teachings and principles that their followers strive to uphold.[1][2][3]
According to Peter Beal, the termscripture – derived fromscriptura (Latin) – meant "writings [manuscripts] in general" prior to the medieval era, and was then "reserved to denote the texts of the Old and New Testaments of the Bible".[4] Beyond Christianity, according to theOxford World Encyclopedia, the termscripture has referred to a text accepted to contain the "sacred writings of a religion",[5] whileThe Oxford center of Dictionary of World Religions states it refers to a text "having [religious] authority and often collected into an accepted canon".[6] In modern times, this equation of the written word with religious texts is particular to theEnglish language, and is not retained in most other languages, which usually add an adjective like "sacred" to denote religious texts.
Some religious texts are categorized as canonical, some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical or post-canonical.[7] The term "canon" is derived from the Greek word "κανών", "a cane used as a measuring instrument". It connotes the sense of "measure, standard, norm, rule". In the modern usage, a religious canon refers to a "catalogue of sacred scriptures" that is broadly accepted to "contain and agree with the rule or canon of a particular faith", states Juan Widow.[8] The related terms such as "non-canonical", "extracanonical", "deuterocanonical" and others presume and are derived from "canon". These derived terms differentiate a corpus of religious texts from the "canonical" literature. At its root, this differentiation reflects the sects and conflicts that developed and branched off over time, the competitive "acceptance" of a common minimum over time and the "rejection" of interpretations, beliefs, rules or practices by one group of another related socio-religious group.[9] The earliest reference to the term "canon" in the context of "a collection of sacred Scripture" is traceable to the 4th-century CE. The early references, such as theSynod of Laodicea, mention both the terms "canonical" and "non-canonical" in the context of religious texts.[10]
One of the oldest known religious texts is theKesh Temple Hymn of ancientSumer,[11][12] a set of inscribed clay tablets which scholars typically date around 2600 BCE.[13] TheEpic of Gilgamesh fromSumer, although only considered by some scholars as a religious text, has origins as early as 2150 BCE,[14] and stands as one of the earliest literary works that includes variousmythological figures and themes of interaction with the divine.[15] TheRigveda, a scripture ofHinduism, is dated 1500 BCE. It is one of the oldest known complete religious texts that has survived into the modern age.[16][17]
High rates of mass production and distribution of religious texts did not begin until the invention of the printing press in 1440,[23] before which all religious texts were hand written copies, of which there were relatively limited quantities in circulation.
The relative authority of religious texts develops over time and is derived from the ratification,enforcement, and its use across generations. Some religious texts are accepted or categorized ascanonical, some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical, or post-canonical.[7]
"Scripture" (or "scriptures") is a subset of religious texts considered to be "especially authoritative",[24][25] revered and "holy writ",[26] "sacred, canonical", or of "supreme authority, special status" to a religious community.[27][28] The termssacred text andreligious text are not necessarily interchangeable in that some religious texts are believed to besacred because of the belief in some theistic religions such as theAbrahamic religions that the text isdivinely orsupernaturallyrevealed ordivinely inspired, or in non-theistic religions such as someIndian religions they are considered to be the central tenets of their eternalDharma. In contrast to sacred texts, many religious texts are narratives or discussions about the specific religion's general themes, interpretations, practices, or important figures.
In some religions (e.g.Christianity), the canonical texts include a particular text (Bible) but are "an unsettled question," according to linguistEugene Nida. In others (Hinduism,Buddhism), there "has never been a definitive canon".[29][30] While the termscripture is derived from theLatinscriptura, meaning "writing", most sacred scriptures of the world's major religions were originally a part of theiroral tradition, and were "passed down through memorization from generation to generation until they were finally committed to writing", according toEncyclopaedia Britannica.[26][31][32]
InIslam, theSunnah are the traditions and practices of theIslamic prophetMuhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. TheSunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time evidently saw, followed, and passed on to the next generations.[33] According to classical Islamic theories,[34] theSunnah are documented byhadith (the verbally transmitted record of the teachings, deeds and sayings, silent permissions or disapprovals attributed toMuhammad), and alongside theQuran (the book ofIslam) is the divine revelation (wahy) delivered through Muhammad[34] that make up the primary sources ofIslamic law andtheology.[35][36] However, sects of Islam differ on whichhadiths (if any) should be accepted as canonical (seecriticism of hadith).
^Charles Elster (2003). "Authority, Performance, and Interpretation in Religious Reading: Critical Issues of Intercultural Communication and Multiple Literacies".Journal of Literacy Research.35 (1):667–670., Quote: "religious texts serve two important regulatory functions: on the group level, they regulate liturgical ritual and systems of law; at the individual level, they (seek to) regulate ethical conduct and direct spiritual aspirations."
^Eugene Nida (1994). "The Sociolinguistics of Translating Canonical Religious Texts".TTR: Traduction, Terminologie, Rédaction.7 (1). Érudit:Université de Montréal:195–197., Quote: "The phrase "religious texts" may be understood in two quite different senses: (1) texts that discuss historical or present-day religious beliefs and practices of a believing community and (2) texts that are crucial in giving rise to a believing community."
^Ricoeur, Paul (1974). "Philosophy and Religious Language".The Journal of Religion.54 (1). University of Chicago Press:71–85.doi:10.1086/486374.S2CID144691132.
^Kramer, Samuel (1942). "The Oldest Literary Catalogue: A Sumerian List of Literary Compositions Compiled about 2000 B.C.".Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research.88 (88):10–19.doi:10.2307/1355474.JSTOR1355474.S2CID163898367.
^Charles Elster (2003). "Authority, Performance, and Interpretation in Religious Reading: Critical Issues of Intercultural Communication and Multiple Literacies".Journal of Literacy Research.35 (1):669–670.
^Eugene Nida (1994),The Sociolinguistics of Translating Canonical Religious Texts, vol. 7, pp. 194–195
^Thomas B. Coburn (1984). ""Scripture" in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life".Journal of the American Academy of Religion.52 (3). Oxford University Press:435–459.doi:10.1093/jaarel/52.3.435.JSTOR1464202.
^Carroll Stuhlmueller (1958). "The Influence of Oral Tradition Upon Exegesis and the Senses of Scripture".The Catholic Biblical Quarterly.20 (3):299–302.JSTOR43710550.
^Qazi, M. A.; El-Dabbas, Mohammed Saʿid (1979).A Concise Dictionary of Islamic Terms. Lahore, Pakistan: Kazi Publications. p. 65.
