The consumption ofpork by humans is restricted by many worldwidereligions. This restriction is most notable for featuring inJudaism andSamaritanism before being widely adopted in otherAbrahamic religions, such asIslam, and consequently becomingprominent around the world.[1] However, it is thought to be rooted in a stigma that was already present in theancient Near East before the rise of theIsraelites—pork was prohibited in parts ofSyria[2] andPhoenicia,[3] and the pig represented a taboo observed atComana in Pontus, as noted by the Greek historianStrabo.[4] A lost poem of the Greek poetHermesianax, reported centuries later by the Greek geographerPausanias, described an etiological myth ofAttis being destroyed by a supernatural boar to account for the fact that "in consequence of these events, theGalatians who inhabitPessinous do not touch pork."[5]
In spite of the common religious stigma associated with pigs, pork remains the most consumed meat of any animal globally.[6] With regard toChristianity, only certain sects that considerJewish dietary laws to still be binding abstain from pork, includingSeventh-day Adventists,Hebrew Roots, andMessianic Jews. Thus, the Christian-majorityWestern world is among the regions where pork consumption has historically been widespread, along withEast Asia and parts ofSoutheast Asia.
"The pig tended to be regarded as a dangerously liminal animal. With the feet of acud-eater, the diet of ascavenger, the habits of a dirt-dweller and the cunning of a human, it exhibited an unsettling combination of characteristics, rendering it culturally inedible for some (but not all)southern Levantine peoples, for whom pigs were often associated with the underworld or malevolent supernatural powers."
TheTorah contains passages in theBook of Leviticus that list the animals that are permissible for human consumption. According toLeviticus 11:3, animals that have divided hooves and chew theircud—like cows, sheep, and deer—arekosher animals (permissible) and may be consumed by followingJewish jurisprudence for animal slaughter. Pigs do not qualify for this status because, despite having the feet of a typical cud-chewing animal, they do not chew their cud. The ban on the consumption of pork is repeated in theBook of Deuteronomy (14:8). Thus,pig farming was largely absent inIsrael and Judah. However, there is an exemption in Judaism on the basis ofpikuach nefesh, which allows a Jew to break almost anyTorah commandment (including the restriction on consuming pork) without it counting as a sin if they find themselves in a life-threatening situation, namelystarvation.
During theRoman period, abstinence from pork became one of the most identifiable features of the Jewish religion to outsiders. One example appears inHistories (5.4.1–2) by the Roman historianTacitus.
Because Jewish dietary restrictions on pork were well-known to non-Jews, foreign attempts of oppression and assimilation of Jewish populations intoGreco-Roman culture often involved attempting to force Jews into consuming pork. According to2 Maccabees (6:18–7:48), the Seleucid emperorAntiochus IV Epiphanes attempted to force Jews in his realm to consume pork as part of his attempted restrictions on the practice of Judaism. In addition, the Jewish philosopherPhilo of Alexandria records that during theAlexandrian anti-Jewish riots of 38, some Alexandrian mobs also attempted to force Jews into consuming pork.[8] Some forms ofJewish Christianity also adopted these restrictions on the consumption of pork, as is noted in the early Christian treatiseDidascalia Apostolorum.[9]
Islamic dietary laws concerning pigs are directly extracted from theQuran, in which pork is only rendered permissible for thoseMuslims who find themselves in an undesirable situation that compels them to consume it. For example, if a Muslim is physically forced, intimidated, or tricked by an oppressor into consuming pork, or if they voluntarily resort to consuming pork because they are facing starvation, then they are entirely free of the sin and will not be judged for it.
Outside of emergencies, pork isharam (unlawful) and cannot be madehalal (lawful) by followingIslamic jurisprudence for animal slaughter.
There are several passages in the Quran that mention pork being forbidden for human consumption, while also declaring amnesty for those who consume it in exceptional circumstances.
He has only forbidden for you [to eat]carrion,blood,swine, and that which is slaughtered in the name of any other thanAllah. But if someone is compelled by necessity—neither driven by desire nor exceeding immediate need—there is no sin upon them. Indeed, Allah isAll-Forgiving andAll-Merciful.
"He has only forbidden for you [to eat] carrion, blood, swine, and that which is slaughtered in the name of any other than Allah. But if someone is compelled by necessity—neither driven by desire nor exceeding immediate need—then surely Allah is All-Forgiving and All-Merciful."
Say, OProphet, "I do not find in what has been revealed to me anything forbidden to eat except carrion, running blood, swine—which is impure—or a sinfuloffering in the name of any other than Allah. But if someone is compelled by necessity—neither driven by desire nor exceeding immediate need—then surely your Lord is All-Forgiving and All-Merciful."
— Al-An'am 6:145
"For those who areJewish, We forbade every animal with undivided hooves and the fat of oxen and sheep except what is joined to their backs or intestines or mixed with bone. In this way We rewarded them for their violations. And We are certainly truthful."
— Al-An'am 6:146
According to the Roman historianSozomen, someArab polytheists inpre-Islamic Arabia who traced their ancestry toIshmael abstained from consuming pork.[12]
InTyre,Phoenicia, it was forbidden for pork, women, and foreigners to be brought into the sanctuary of the temple of the deityMelqart.[13] This restriction was attested during thePersian period.
According to the Greek historianHerodotus, theScythians had a taboo against the pig, which was never offered in sacrifice, and they apparently loathed so much as to even keep the animal within their lands.[14]
AScottish pork taboo purportedly existed until the 19th century, as discussed by the Scottish folkloristDonald Alexander Mackenzie. It was particularly prevalent amongHighlanders, whom Mackenzie believed refrained from pork due to an ancient taboo.[citation needed] Several writers[who?] who confirm that there was a prejudice against pork consumption, or a generally superstitious attitude toward pigs, do not see it in terms of a taboo related to an ancient cult.[citation needed]
The American anthropologistMarvin Harris, specializing incultural materialism, thought that the main reason for prohibiting consumption of pork was ecological and economical.[15] Pigs require water and shady woods with seeds,[citation needed] but such conditions are scarce in theNear East. Unlike many other animals that are kept aslivestock, pigs are notherbivores—they areomnivores and are also known forscavenging, which may have contributed to their reputation ofritual uncleanliness. Furthermore, a Near Eastern society keeping large stocks of pigs could destroy their ecosystem.[citation needed]
It is speculated that chickens supplanted pigs as a more portable and efficient source of meat, and these practical concerns led to the religious restrictions.[16]
Medieval French rabbiRashi wrote in his commentary on theHebrew Bible andTalmud that the prohibition of pork as a Jewish dietary law that would be derided by others as making no sense.[17] Rabbi and polymathMaimonides interpreted the common dietary laws chiefly as a means of keeping the body healthy in hisGuide for the Perplexed. He argued that the meat of the forbidden animals, birds, and fish is unwholesome and indigestible. He said this does not seem to apply to pork since it does not appear to be harmful at first glance, however, since the pig is a filthy animal, using them for food would make marketplaces and houses dirtier than latrines.[18]
TheSefer HaChinuch[19] (an early work ofhalakha) gives a general overview of the Jewish dietary laws. The anonymousLevite writes "And if there are any reasons for the dietary laws which are unknown to us or those knowledgeable in the health field, do not wonder about them, for thetrue Healer that warns us against them is smarter than us, and smarter than the doctors."
