Religious philosophy is philosophical thinking that is influenced and directed as a consequence of teachings from a particularreligion. It can be done objectively, but it may also be done as a persuasion tool by believers in thatfaith. Religiousphilosophy is concerned with the nature of religion,theories of salvation, andconceptions of god, gods, and/or the divine.[1]
Due to the historical development of religions, many religions share commonalities concerning their philosophies. These philosophies are often considered to be universal and include beliefs about concepts such as theafterlife,souls, andmiracles.[2]
Religious faith and philosophical reflection are closely interconnected. Religious traditions influence the philosophical thinking and beliefs of adherents within a given religion.[3]
In addition, some philosophical concepts and forms of reasoning found in religious teachings appear to have developed independently while nevertheless exhibiting notable similarities and analogous ideas.[6] For instance, arguments concerning the existence of an omniscientgod or multiple gods appear in several religious traditions, including Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism. Similarly, the philosophical concept offree will is present in bothmonotheistic andpolytheistic religions.[6]
Many religious concepts are described as "cross-culturally ubiquitous"[2] because they are considered "cognitively natural."[7][2] These concepts are regarded as intuitive in that they tend to arise with little explicit direction, instruction, or formal teaching during early stages of cognitive development[8] and do not necessarily originate from specific cultural instruction.[9] Examples of such religious concepts include beliefs concerning the afterlife, souls,supernatural agents, and miraculous events.[2]
Some religious concepts require deliberate instruction to ensure their transmission within a community.[8] These beliefs are categorized as reflective and are often encoded in linguistic or doctrinal forms that facilitate communication and preservation. Reflective religious philosophies are understood to play a significant role in the maintenance and continuity of cultural and religious traditions.[10] Examples of reflective religious philosophies include concepts such askarma, divine immanent justice or providence, as well as theological doctrines such as theTrinity in Christianity andBrahman in Hinduism.[8]
Ontological arguments are a class of philosophical arguments that rely on reason alone to conclude that God exists.[11] Numerous philosophers have contributed to the development of various ontological arguments.
In the 11th century CE,Saint Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109) formulated an ontological argument in his workProslogion. His reasoning was based on the idea of God as "that than which nothing greater can be conceived."[11][1][12]
In the 17th century,René Descartes (1596–1650) proposed ontological arguments similar to those of Anselm. In hisFifth Meditation, Descartes argues that the idea of a supremely perfect being entails its existence, on the grounds that necessary existence is a defining attribute of such a being.[11][15][16][17]
Two commonly cited formulations of Descartes' ontological argument are as follows:[15][16][17]
Version A
Whatever is clearly and distinctly perceived to be contained in the idea of a thing is true of that thing.
Necessary existence is clearly and distinctly perceived to be contained in the idea of God.
Therefore, God exists.
Version B
There exists an idea of a supremely perfect being, that is, a being possessing all perfections.
Necessary existence is a perfection.
Therefore, a supremely perfect being exists.
In the 18th century,Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716) further developed Descartes' ontological argument by addressing the issue of whether the concept of a supremely perfect being is coherent. Leibniz argued that perfections are mutually compatible and can therefore coexist within a single being, thereby supporting the argument's validity.[11]
More recent philosophers, includingKurt Gödel,Charles Hartshorne,Norman Malcolm, andAlvin Plantinga, have proposed ontological arguments that elaborate on or modify earlier formulations by thinkers such as Anselm, Descartes, and Leibniz.[11] For example,Kurt Gödel (1906–1978) employed modal logic to formalize and expand upon Leibniz's version of Anselm's argument in what is known asGödel's ontological proof.[18]
An individual's conception of God has been shown to influence religious coping styles.[19] Research has identified several religiously affiliated coping styles:
Self-directing style: Individuals address problems independently without directly involving God.[19][20]
Deferring style: Individuals defer responsibility for problem-solving to God.[19][20]
Collaborative style: Individuals and God are viewed as jointly involved in the problem-solving process.[19][20]
Surrender style: Individuals work collaboratively with God while prioritizing divine guidance over personal control.[19][21]
An individual's religious philosophy can play a significant role in medical care and healthcare decision-making, and consideration of these beliefs may contribute to improved quality of care.[22] In particular, withinpalliative care, awareness of diverse religious and philosophical frameworks can assist healthcare providers in addressing patients' spiritual needs appropriately.[23] Religious philosophy is also a relevant consideration inpsychotherapeutic approaches topsychiatric disorders.[24] Considerations surroundingorgan donation after death are likewise influenced by an individual's religious philosophy.[25]
Many religions prescribe or encourage specific dietary practices. For example, vegetarian diets are commonly observed by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, and theSeventh-day Adventist Church.[22][26][27] The ethical principle ofahimsa (non-injury to living beings), central to Buddhist and Hindu philosophy, emphasizes the sanctity of life and has influenced vegetarian traditions. This principle encompasses both human and animal life and is also associated with beliefs such asreincarnation.[27]
Some religious traditions require food to be prepared or consumed with invocation of God's name.[22][28] In Islam, for example, meat must come from properly slaughtered animals considered permissible (halal), while the consumption of certain animals, such asscavenger species, is prohibited.[27][28] Islamic dietary laws, derived from the commandments ofAllah as outlined in theQuran and theSunnah of Muhammad, emphasize purity, with dietary practices intended to promote both physical and spiritual cleanliness.[28][29] Similarly, Jewishkosher dietary laws are derived from religious texts such as theTorah and theMishnah.[28][29]
Attitudes toward euthanasia are influenced by religious philosophy. Opposition to the legalization of euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide is frequently associated with religious beliefs.[30][31][32][33] Studies indicate that individuals who believe in God as an entity that controlsdestiny are more likely to oppose the legalization of euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide.[34][35] Religions such as Christian Science, theChurch of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Hinduism, Islam,Jehovah's Witnesses, and theSeventh-day Adventist Church generally oppose or do not practice euthanasia.[22][36]
Many religions attribute significant philosophical value to human life and therefore oppose abortion.[37] However, some religious traditions permit abortion under specific circumstances, such as cases involving rape or when the life of the pregnant woman is at risk.[22]
Religious philosophy influences many aspects of an individual's worldview and approach to life. For example, empirical studies focusing on the philosophical concept ofspirituality at or near the end of life in India have found that individuals who follow Indian philosophical traditions are influenced by these frameworks in their perceptions of spirituality.[38]
Considerations related tomedical care,death, diet, andpregnancy vary among adherents of different religions due to their respective philosophical traditions.[22][39]
Islamic philosophy generally prohibits the violation of the human body,[40] while also emphasizing altruism and the preservation of life:
And whoever saves one—it is as if he had saved mankind entirely. (Quran 5:32)
Organ donation is generally supported within Islamic ethics[22], based on the principle of necessity overriding prohibition (al-darurat tubih al-mahzurat).[40][41] Objections to organ donation within Muslim communities are often attributed to cultural rather than theological considerations, as Islamic principles allow exceptions for medical necessity, including the use of porcine-derived medical products such asbone grafts andinsulin.[40][42]
Formal rulings supporting organ donation have been issued by Islamic authorities, including a 1996ijtihad by the UK Muslim Law Council and a 1988 ruling by the Islamic Jurisprudence Assembly Council inSaudi Arabia, with similar decisions made inEgypt,Iran, andPakistan.[43]
Islamic jurisprudence does not permit voluntary death, including euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide.[44][45] Life is regarded as a sacred gift from Allah, who alone determines its duration.[46] The moment of death (ajal) is believed to be beyond human control, and any form of intentional hastening of death is prohibited.[47] Although the Qur'an states, "Nor take life—which Allah has made sacred—except for just cause" (Quran 17:33),hadith literature further reinforces the prohibition of euthanasia, even in cases of severe suffering.[44]
Christian philosophical traditions generally support organ donation, although theological reasoning and acceptance vary among denominations.[22][25] Christian theologians often reference biblical teachings emphasizing altruism and self-sacrifice,[48] including:
Heal the sick, cleanse the lepers, raise the dead, cast out devils: freely you have received, freely give. (Matthew 10:8)[49]
Greater love has no one than this: to lay down one's life for one's friends. (John 15:13)[50]
Most Christian scholars consider organ transplantation an act of charity and selflessness. In 1990, theCatholic Church and severalProtestant denominations jointly endorsed organ donation as an expression of Christian love.[40][41]
Jewish philosophy places significant importance on the intact burial of the deceased, based onhalakhic principles.[51] However, the principle of saving a life (pikuach nefesh) overrides nearly all other commandments.[52]
Whoever destroys a soul, it is considered as if he destroyed an entire world. And whoever saves a life, it is considered as if he saved an entire world. (BabylonianTalmud, Sanhedrin 37a)
Jewish legal traditions generally prohibit abortion,foeticide, andinfanticide, viewing them as violations of human life.[53][54] However, rabbinical sources permit abortion when the mother's life or health is endangered, prioritizing her well-being over that of the fetus.[54] Jewish law does not permit abortion in cases ofrape orincest.[54]
Hindu philosophical traditions generally prohibit abortion in accordance withDharmashastra texts. Hindu beliefs regarding conception hold that both physical and spiritual attributes, including an individual's pastkarma, are present from the moment of conception and enter the humanembryo.[53]
Buddhist philosophical traditions, similar to Hindu views, generally regard abortion as morally problematic in accordance with theFive Precepts.[55] However, intention (cetana) plays a significant role in ethical evaluation,[56] and some Buddhist interpretations allow abortion under circumstances where compassionate intent is emphasized.[53]
Taoist philosophy emphasizes balance between human populations and natural resources.[57] These principles influenced population management policies in China, including theone-child policy.[57][58] Abortion is generally discouraged in Taoist thought, as it is believed to disrupt bodily harmony and negate the body's natural capacity to generate life.[59]
Each religion also has unique philosophies that distinguish them from other religions, and these philosophies are guided through the concepts and values behind the teaching pertaining to that belief-system. Different religious philosophies include:
Aztec philosophy – School of philosophy that developed out of Aztec culture
^Kennedy, Juliette (2020). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.)."Kurt Gödel".Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2020 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.Archived from the original on 2021-12-30. Retrieved2020-11-20.
^abPakeeza, Shahzadi; Munir, Mohsina. "Dietary Laws of Islam and Judaism: A Comparative Study".Al Adwa.45 (31):1–14.
^Danyliv, Andriy; O'Neill, Ciaran (2015). "Attitudes towards legalising physician provided euthanasia in Britain: The role of religion over time".Social Science & Medicine.128: 53.doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.12.030.PMID25589032.
^Hains, Carrie-Anne Marie; Hulbert-Williams, Nicholas J. (2013). "Attitudes toward euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide: a study of the multivariate effects of healthcare training, patient characteristics, religion and locus of control".Journal of Medical Ethics.39 (11):713–716.doi:10.1136/medethics-2012-100729.ISSN0306-6800.PMID23378530.S2CID9657186.
^Aghababaei, Naser (2013). "The Euthanasia–Religion Nexus: Exploring Religious Orientation and Euthanasia Attitude Measures in a Muslim Context".OMEGA – Journal of Death and Dying.66 (4):333–341.doi:10.2190/OM.66.4.d.ISSN0030-2228.PMID23785984.S2CID20288072.
^Burdette, Amy M.; Hill, Terrence D.; Moulton, Benjamin E. (2005). "Religion and Attitudes Toward Physician-Assisted Suicide and Terminal Palliative Care".Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion.44 (1):79–93.doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2005.00266.x.ISSN0021-8294.
^Harris, Richard J.; Mills, Edgar W. (1985). "Religion, Values and Attitudes toward Abortion".Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion.24 (2): 137.doi:10.2307/1386338.JSTOR1386338.
^Hassaballah, A. M. (1996-06-01). "Definition of death, organ donation and interruption of treatment in Islam".Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation.11 (6): 964.doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.ndt.a027515.ISSN0931-0509.
^Golmakani, Mohammad Mehdi; Niknam, Mohammad Hussein; Hedayat, Kamyar M. (2005). "Transplantation ethics from the Islamic point of view".Medical Science Monitor.11 (4): RA105–109.ISSN1234-1010.PMID15795706.
^abcMaguire, Daniel C. (2016-04-21),"Abortion and Religion", in Wong, Angela; Wickramasinghe, Maithree; hoogland, renee; Naples, Nancy A (eds.),The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexuality Studies, Singapore: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., pp. 1–5,doi:10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss267,ISBN978-1-4051-9694-9,archived from the original on 2023-07-17, retrieved2020-11-20
^abcJakobovits, I. (1968). "Jewish views on abortion".Child and Family.7 (2):142–156.ISSN0009-3882.PMID12309928.
^Maguire, Daniel C. (2003).Sacred Rights. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-516001-7.
^Florida, R. E. (1991). "Buddhist Approaches to Abortion".Asian Philosophy.1 (1):39–50.doi:10.1080/09552369108575334.
^abMaguire, Daniel C. (2016-04-21),"Abortion and Religion", in Wong, Angela; Wickramasinghe, Maithree; hoogland, renee; Naples, Nancy A (eds.),The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexuality Studies, Singapore: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., p. 3,doi:10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss267,ISBN978-1-4051-9694-9,archived from the original on 2023-07-17, retrieved2020-11-20
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