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Religion in India is characterised by a diversity of religious beliefs and practices. Throughout India's history,religion has been an important part of the country's culture and theIndian subcontinent is the birthplace of four of theworld's major religions, namelyBuddhism,Hinduism,Jainism, andSikhism, which are collectively known as nativeIndian religions orDharmic religions and represent approx. 83% of the total population of India.
India has the largest number of followers of Hinduism, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, Jainism, and theBahá'í Faith in the world. It further hosts the third most followers of Islam, behindIndonesia andPakistan, and the ninth largest population of Buddhists.[1]
ThePreamble to the Constitution of India states that India is asecular state,[2][3] and theConstitution of India has declared the right tofreedom of religion to be afundamental right.[4]
According to the 2011 census, 79.8% of thepopulation of India followsHinduism, 14.2%Islam, 2.3%Christianity, 1.7%Sikhism, 0.7%Buddhism and 0.4%Jainism.Zoroastrianism,Sanamahism andJudaism also have an ancient history in India, and each has several thousands of Indian adherents. India has the largest population of people adhering to both Zoroastrianism (i.e.Parsis andIranis) and theBahá'í Faith in the world;[5] these religions are otherwise largely exclusive to their nativeIran where they originated from. Several tribal religions are also present in India, such asDonyi-Polo,Sanamahism,Sarnaism,Niamtre, and others.
TheConstitution of India declares India to be asecular state with no state religion.[6] TheForty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India enacted in 1976 asserts thePreamble to the Constitution of India assecular.[7] TheSupreme Court of India in the 1994 caseS. R. Bommai v. Union of India established that India had beensecular since the formation of the Republic on 26 January 1950.[8] Secularism in India is understood to mean not a complete separation of religion from state, but a state that participates in a neutral manner in the affairs of all religious groups and as well asatheism while maintaining equidistance from all.[citation needed]
However, the original copy of the Indian constitution has an illustration ofRama,Sita, andLakshmana in Part III on Fundamental Rights andRama has been considered as the true guardian of people's rights.[9] Article 48 of the Indian constitution prohibits the slaughter ofcows or calves (a sacred animal inHinduism) and the same is a criminal offence in most states of India.[10][11]
Secularism is defined as abasic structure doctrine of the constitution through the argument ofKesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case, that cannot be removed or amended by any means.[12] However, there is no mention of the term “Basic Structure” anywhere in the Constitution of India. The idea that the Parliament cannot introduce laws that would amend the basic structure of the constitution have been evolved judicially over time and many cases.[13]
The particular provisions regarding secularism andfreedom of religion in India in the constitution are:
Evidence attesting toprehistoric religion in the Indian "subcontinent" derives from scatteredMesolithic rock paintings depicting dances and rituals.[23]Neolithic pastoralists inhabiting theIndus Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife.[24] OtherSouth Asian Stone Age sites, such as theBhimbetka rock shelters in centralMadhya Pradesh and theKupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.[25]
TheHarappan people of theIndus Valley Civilisation, which lasted from 3300 to 1400 BCE and was centered on theIndus andGhaggar-Hakra river valleys, may have worshiped an importantmother goddess symbolising fertility.[26] Excavations of Indus Valley Civilisation sites show seals with animals and "fire‑altars", indicating rituals associated with fire.[27] AShivlinga of a type similar to that which is now worshiped by Hindus has also been found,[26] however this interpretation has been disputed by Srinivasan.[28]
Hinduism is often regarded as the oldest surviving religion in the world,[29] with roots tracing back toprehistoric times, over 5,000 years ago.[30] Hinduism spread throughparts of Southeastern Asia, China, and Afghanistan. Hindus worship a single divine entity (paramatma, lit."first-soul") with different forms.[31]
Hinduism's origins include the cultural elements of the Indus Valley Civilisation along with other Indian civilisations.[32] The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is theRigveda, produced during theVedic period and dating to 1700–1100 BCE.[γ][33] During the Epic andPuranic periods, the earliest versions of the epic poems, in their current form includingRamayana andMahabharata were written roughly from 500 to 100 BCE,[34] although these were orally transmitted through families for centuries prior to this period.[35]
After 200 BCE, several schools of thought were formally codified in theIndian philosophy, includingSamkhya,Yoga,Nyaya,Vaisheshika,Purva-Mimamsa, andVedanta.[36]
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TheŚramaṇa tradition includesJainism,[37] known endonymically asJain Dharm, andBuddhism[38] known endonymically asBauddh Dharm, and others such as theĀjīvikas,Ajñanas, and others.[39][40]
The historical roots of Jainism in India have been traced to the 9th century BCE with the rise ofParshvanatha, the 23rdTirthankar, and hisJain philosophy,[41][37] and toMahavira (599–527 BCE), the 24th Jain Tirthankara. Jainism traces its roots further back to the first Tirthankara,Rishabhanatha. Mahavira stressed on the five vows.
Gautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism, was born to theShakya clan just beforeMagadha (which lasted from 546 to 324 BCE) rose to power.[citation needed] His family was native to the plains ofLumbini, in what is now southernNepal.Indian Buddhism peaked during the reign ofAshoka the Great of theMauryan Empire, who patronised Buddhism following his conversion and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE.[42] He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.[43]Indian Buddhism declined following the loss of royal patronage offered by theKushan Empire and such kingdoms asMagadha andKosala.
The decline of Buddhism in India has been attributed to a variety of factors, which include the resurgence of Hinduism in the 10th and 11th centuries underSankaracharya, the later Turkish invasion, the Buddhist focus onrenunciation as opposed to familial values and private property, Hinduism's own use and appropriation of Buddhist and Jain ideals of renunciation andahimsa, and others. Although Buddhism virtually disappeared from mainstream India by the 11th century CE, its presence remained and manifested itself through other movements such as theBhakti tradition, Vaishnavism, and theBauls of Bengal, who are influenced by the Sahajjyana form of Buddhism that was popular in Bengal during thePala period.
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During the 14th–17th centuries, when North India was under Muslim rule, theBhakti movement swept through Central and Northern India. The Bhakti movement actually started in the eighth century in south India (present-dayTamil Nadu andKerala), and gradually spread northwards.[44] It was initiated by a loosely associated group of teachers or saints.Dnyaneshwar,Chaitanya Mahaprabhu,Vallabhacharya,Surdas,Meera Bai,Kabir,Tulsidas,Ravidas,Namdeo,Eknath,Ramdas,Tukaram, and other mystics were some of the saints in the North. They taught that people could cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste and the subtle complexities of philosophy, and simply express their overwhelming love for God. This period was also characterised by an abundance of devotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in the ethnic languages of the various Indian states or provinces. The Bhakti movement gave rise to several different movements throughout India
During the Bhakti movement, many Hindu groups regarded as outside the traditional Hindu caste system followed Bhakti traditions by worshipping/following saints belonging to their respective communities. For example, Guru Ravidas was aChamar of Uttar Pradesh; GuruParsuram Ramnami was aChura[dubious –discuss] of Chhattisgarh, and Maharishi Ram Naval was aBhangi of Rajasthan. In their lifetimes, several of these saints even went to the extent of fighting conversion from foreign missionaries, encouraging only Hinduism within their communities. In Assam for example, tribals were led by Gurudev Kalicharan Bramha of the Brahmo Samaj; in Nagaland by Kacha Naga; and in Central India by Birsa Munda, Hanuman Aaron, Jatra Bhagat, and Budhu Bhagat.
The Kabir Panth is a religious movement based on the teachings of the Indian poet saintKabir (1398–1518).[45]
Kabir sermonised a monotheism that appealed clearly to the poor and convinced them of their access to god with no liaison. He denied both Hinduism and Islam, as well as meaningless religious rituals, and condemned double standards.[46] This infuriated the orthodox aristocracy. No one could frighten Kabir who was bold enough to stand up for himself and his beliefs.[47]
The Kabir Panth considers Kabir as its principal guru or even as a divinity—truth incarnate. Kabir's influence is testimony to his massive authority, even for those whose beliefs and practices he condemned so unsparingly. For Sikhs he is a forerunner and converser of Nanak, the originating Sikh Guru (spiritual guide). Muslims place him in Sufi (mystical) lineages, and for Hindus he becomes a Vaishnavite with universalist leanings.[48]
Guru Nanak Dev Ji (1469–1539) was the founder ofSikhism, known endonymically asSikh Dharm.[49][50] TheGuru Granth Sahib was first compiled by the fifth Sikh guru,Guru Arjan Dev, from the writings of the first five Sikh gurus and others saints who preached the concept of universal brotherhood, including those of the Hindu and Muslim faith. Before the death ofGuru Gobind Singh, the Guru Granth Sahib was declared the eternal guru.[51]Sikhism recognises all humans as equal beforeWaheguru,[52] regardless of colour, caste, or lineage.[53] Sikhismstrongly rejects the beliefs offasting (vrata),superstitions,idol worship,[54][55] andcircumcision.[56][57] The Sikhs believe in one eternal god and follow the teachings of the10 gurus, the5 K's of Sikhism, the hukums ofGuru Gobind Singh,Sikh Rehat Maryada, andNitnem.
Jews first arrived as traders fromJudea in the city ofKochi, Kerala, in 562 BCE.[58] More Jews came as exiles from Jerusalem in the year 70 CE, after the destruction of theSecond Temple.[59]
Christianity was introduced to India byThomas the Apostle (a direct disciple ofJesus Christ),[60] who visitedMuziris in Kerala in 52 CE andproselytised natives, who are known asSaint Thomas Christians (also known as Syrian Christians orNasrani) today. India's oldest church, the world's oldest existing church structure and built by Thomas the Apostle in 57 CE, calledThiruvithamcode Arappally orThomaiyar orKovil as named by the thenChera king Udayancheral, is located atThiruvithancode inKanyakumari (Cape Comorin) district ofTamil Nadu, it was declared an international St Thomas Pilgrim Centre.[61] There is a generalscholarly consensus that Christianity was rooted in India by the 6th century CE, including some communities who usedSyriac liturgically.[62][63][64] Christianity in India consists of various denominations such as theAssyrian Church,Catholicism,Protestantism,Oriental Orthodoxy and others.
Most Christians live in South India, particularly inKerala,Tamil Nadu,Goa,[65][66] & the average number of Christians is at 3.45% in areas such asBombay (Mumbai).[67] There are also large Christian populations inNortheast India.[68]Catholic Christianity was spread in the 16th century, particularly by thePortuguese in Goa and Bombay.Protestantism was introduced byProtestant missionaries in the 18th century.[69]
Islam came to India in the early 7th century through the Arab traders inMalabar coast. It started to become a major religion during the Muslim rule in the Indian subcontinent.[70] TheCheraman Juma Mosque is the first mosque in India located in Methala, Kodungallur Taluk, Thrissur District in Kerala.[71] A legend claims that it was built in 629 CE, which makes it the oldest mosque in the Indian subcontinent which is still in use.[71] The growth of Islam in India mostly took place under theDelhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and theMughal Empire (1526–1858), greatly aided by the mysticSufi tradition.[72][73] The growth of Islam was regionally uneven, and Islam had the greatest appeal to those who were not, or only superficially integrated into the Brahmanical fold, as in the case of Bengal.[72][74]
Currently, Islam is the second largest religion in India, with 14.2% of the country's population or roughly 172 million people identifying as adherents of Islam (2011 census).[75] The estimated number of Muslims in India for 2024 is projected to be around 204,760,392.[76]
It makes India the country with the largest Muslim population outsideMuslim-majority countries.[77]
| Religion[note 1] | Population | % |
|---|---|---|
| Hindus | 966,257,353 | 79.8% |
| Muslims | 172,245,158 | 14.2% |
| Christians | 27,819,588 | 2.3% |
| Sikhs | 20,833,116 | 1.72% |
| Buddhists | 8,442,972 | 0.7% |
| Sarnaism | 4,957,467 | 0.41% |
| Jains | 4,451,753 | 0.37% |
| Gondi (Koyapunem) | 1,026,344 | 0.08% |
| Other religious beliefs[note 2] | 1,953,923 | 0.16% |
| Not stated | 2,867,303 | 0.24% |
| Total | 1,210,854,977 | 100% |
There are six religions in India which have been awarded "National minority" status—Muslims,Christians,Sikhs,Jains,Buddhists, andZoroastrians (Parsis).[80][81]
| Religious group | Population % (of total population) as per census | Change in growth rate since 1951 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1951 | 1961 | 1971 | 1981 | 1991 | 2001 | 2011 | ||
| Hinduism | 84.1% | 83.45% | 82.73% | 82.30% | 81.53% | 80.46% | 79.80% |  5.12% |
| Islam | 9.8% | 10.69% | 11.21% | 11.75% | 12.61% | 13.43% | 14.23% |  45.21% |
| Christianity | 2.3% | 2.44% | 2.60% | 2.44% | 2.32% | 2.34% | 2.37% | 3.04% |
| Sikhism | 1.79% | 1.79% | 1.89% | 1.92% | 1.94% | 1.87% | 1.72% | 3.91% |
| Buddhism | 0.74% | 0.74% | 0.70% | 0.70% | 0.77% | 0.77% | 0.70% | 5.41% |
| Jainism | 0.46% | 0.46% | 0.48% | 0.47% | 0.40% | 0.41% | 0.37% | 19.56% |
| Zoroastrianism | 0.13% | 0.09% | 0.09% | 0.09% | 0.08% | 0.06% | 0.05% | 61.53% |
| Atheism or other religion | 0.8% | 0.8% | 0.41% | 0.42% | 0.44% | 0.8% | 0.9% | 12.51% |
The following is a breakdown of India's religious communities:
| Religious group | Population (2011) % | Growth (2001–2011)[83][84] | Sex ratio (2011) | Literacy (2011) (%)[85] | Work participation (2011) (%)[86][87] | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| total[86] | rural | urban | child[88] | |||||
| Hinduism | 79.80% | 16.8% | 939 | 946 | 921 | 913 | 73.3% | 41.0% |
| Islam | 14.23% | 24.6% | 951 | 957 | 941 | 943 | 68.5% | 32.6% |
| Christianity | 2.30% | 15.5% | 1023 | 1008 | 1046 | 958 | 84.5% | 41.9% |
| Sikhism | 1.72% | 8.4% | 903 | 905 | 898 | 828 | 75.4% | 36.3% |
| Buddhism | 0.70% | 6.1% | 965 | 960 | 973 | 933 | 81.3% | 43.1% |
| Jainism | 0.37% | 5.4% | 954 | 935 | 959 | 889 | 94.9% | 35.5% |
| Others/Religion not specified | 0.90% | n/a | 959 | 947 | 975 | 974 | n/a | n/a |
Note: When compared with 2001, India's population rose by 17.7% in 2011 with an average sex ratio of 943 and a literacy rate of 74.4%. The average work participation stood at 39.79%.
Hinduism is an ancient religion with the largest religious grouping in India, with around 966 million adherents as of 2011, composing 79.8% of the population.[82] Hinduism is diverse, withmonotheism,henotheism,polytheism,panentheism,pantheism,monism,atheism,animism,agnosticism, andgnosticism being represented.[89][90][91][92][93] The termHindu, originally a geographical description, derives from theSanskrit,Sindhu (the historical appellation for the Indus River), and refers to a person from theland of the river Sindhu.[94] Hindus following the traditional religion call it Sanatana Dharma (or "Eternal Way").[95] The adherents of Sanatana Dharma call themselves as "Sanatani", the original word for the adherents of Sanatana Dharma.
Islam is amonotheistic religion centered on the belief in one God and following the example ofMuhammad; it is the largest minority religion in India. About 14.2% of the country's population or approximately 172.2 million people identify as adherents of Islam (2011 census).[78][96][97][98] It makes India the country with the largest Muslim population outsideMuslim-majority countries. Muslims are a majority in statesJammu and Kashmir andLakshadweep,[99] and live in high concentrations inUttar Pradesh,Bihar,West Bengal,Assam, andKerala.[99][100] There has been no particular census conducted in India with regards to sects, but sources suggest the largest denomination isSunni Islam,[101] with substantial populations ofShia andAhmadiyya Muslims. Indian sources likeTimes of India andDNA reported the Indian Shia Muslims population in mid-2005–2006 to be between 25% and 31% of entire Muslim population of India, which accounts them in numbers between 40 and 50 million.[102][103][101][104]
Christianity is amonotheistic religion centred on the life and teachings ofJesus as presented in theNew Testament. It is the third largest religion of India, making up 2.3% of the population.St. Thomas is credited with introduction of Christianity in India. He arrived on theMalabar Coast in 52 CE.[105][106][107] The tradition of origin amongSaint Thomas Christians relates to the arrival ofSaint Thomas, one of the 12 disciples ofJesus at the ancient seaportMuziris on the Kerala coast in 52 CE. The families Sankaramangalam, Pakalomattam, Kalli, and Kaliyankal were considered particularly preeminent, and historically the most aristocraticSyriac Christian families tended to claim descent from these families.
It is also possible forAramaic-speakingJews fromGalilee to make a trip to Kerala in the 1st century. TheCochin Jews are known to have existed in Kerala around that time. The earliest known source connecting the apostle to India is theActs of Thomas, likely written in the early 3rd century, perhaps inEdessa.
Marth Mariam Syro-Malabar Catholic Forane Church, Arakuzha was founded in 999.
The text describes Thomas' adventures in bringing Christianity to India, a tradition later expanded upon in early Indian sources such as the "Thomma Parvam" ("Song of Thomas"). Generally he is described as arriving in or aroundMaliankara and founding Seven Churches and half churches, or Ezharapallikal: Kodungallur, Kollam,Niranam,Nilackal (Chayal), Kokkamangalam,Kottakkavu,Palayoor, Thiruvithamcode Arappalli andAruvithura church (half church). A number of 3rd- and 4th-century Roman writers also mention Thomas' trip to India, includingAmbrose of Milan,Gregory of Nazianzus,Jerome, andEphrem the Syrian, whileEusebius of Caesarea records that his teacherPantaenus visited a Christian community in India in the 2nd century. There came into existence a Christian community who were mainly merchants.
Christianity expanded in the rest of India during the period of British colonial rule. Christians constitute the majority of natives ofNagaland andMizoram as well as ofMeghalaya and have significant populations inManipur,Goa,Kerala and Mumbai.
Sikhism is amonotheistic religion began in fifteenth-centuryPunjab with the teachings ofGuru Nanak and nine successive Sikhgurus. As of 2011, there were 20.8 millionSikhs in India.Punjab is the spiritual home of Sikhs, and is the only state in India where Sikhs form a majority. There are also significant populations of Sikhs in neighbouringChandigarh,Himachal Pradesh,Jammu division ofJammu and Kashmir,Delhi, andHaryana. These areas were historically a part ofGreater Punjab. However, there is no data for specific number of Nanak followers (Nanakpanthis) in India, but they are believed to be in crores somewhere around 14 crores.[108][109][110] Karnail Singh Panjoli, member, Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, says that there are several communities within the term ‘Nanakpanthis’ too. “There are groups like Sikhligarh, Vanjaarey, Nirmaley, Lubaney, Johri, Satnamiye, Udaasiyas etc. who call themselvesNanakpanthis. They follow guru Nanak and Sri Guru Granth Sahib.[111][112]
Buddhism is an Indian,transtheistic religion and philosophy. Around 8.5 million Buddhists live in India, about 0.7% of the total population.[113] Buddhism as a religion is practised mainly in the foothills of theHimalayas and is a significant religion inSikkim,Arunachal Pradesh,Ladakh,Darjeeling inWest Bengal, and the Lahaul andSpiti districts ofHimachal Pradesh. Besides, a significant number of Buddhists reside inMaharashtra. They are the Buddhists orNavayana Buddhists who, under the influence ofB. R. Ambedkar embraced Buddhism in order to escape the casteist practices within Hinduism. Ambedkar is a crucial figure, along withAnagarika Dharmapala ofSri Lanka andKripasaran Mahasthavira ofChittagong behind the revival of Buddhism in India in the 19th and 20th centuries. The escape of the 14thDalai Lama,Tenzing Gyatso to India fleeing Chinese occupation ofTibet in 1959 and the setting up of theTibetan Government in Exile atDharamshala inMcleodganj inHimachal Pradesh has also accelerated the resurgence of Buddhism in India. The effective religion inSikkim, which joined the Indian Union in 1975 (making it India's 22nd state) remainsVajrayana Buddhism, andPadmasambhava or Guru Ugyen is a revered presence there.
Jainism is a non-theistic Indian religion and philosophical system originating inIron Age India. Jains compose 0.4% (around 4.45 million) of India's population, and are concentrated in the states ofGujarat,Karnataka,Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra, andRajasthan.[99]
Also present in India,Judaism is amonotheistic religion from theLevant. There is today a very small community of Indian Jews. There were more Jews in India historically, including theCochin Jews ofKerala, theBene Israel ofMaharashtra, and theBaghdadi Jews nearMumbai. Since Indian independence, two primarily proselyte Indian Jewish communities have developed in India: theBnei Menashe ofMizoram andManipur, and theBene Ephraim, also calledTelugu Jews. Of the approximately 95,000 Jews of Indian extraction, fewer than 20,000 remain in India. Some parts of India are especially popular with Israelis, swelling local Jewish populations seasonally.[citation needed]
As of the census of 2001,Parsis (followers ofZoroastrianism in India) represent approximately 0.006% of the total population of India,[114] with relatively high concentrations in and around the city ofMumbai. Parsis number around 61,000 in India.[115]
There are several tribal religions in India, such asDonyi-Polo. Santhal is also one of the many tribal religions followed by theSanthal people who number around 4 million but only around 23,645 follow the religion.[citation needed]Bathousim is another tribal religion ofBoro community ofAssam.[116]
It is difficult to establish the exact numbers ofBaháʼís in India. The religion came to India from Iran in about 1850 and gained some converts from the Muslim population of India. The first Sikh and Hindu converts came by 1910, and in 1960 there were fewer than 1,000 Baháʼís in all of India. Beginning in 1961, large numbers from scheduled castes became Baháʼís, and by 1993 Baháʼís reported about 2.2 million members,[5] though later sources have claimed 2 million,[117] or "more than 1 million".[118]
Sanamahism is the indigenous religion ofMeitei community inManipur which they follow along withVaishnavism.[119]
Around 2.9 million people in India did not state their religion in the 2011 census and were counted in the category, "religion not stated". They were 0.24% of India's population. Their number have significantly increased 4 times from 0.7 million in 2001 census at an average annual rate of 15%.[120]K. Veeramani, aDravidar Kazhagam leader, said that he believed that the number of atheists in India was actually higher as many people don't reveal their atheism out of fear.[121]
According to the 2012 WIN-Gallup Global Index of Religion and Atheism report, 81% of Indians were religious, 13% were non-religious, 3% were convinced atheists, and 3% were unsure or did not respond.[122]
The preamble to theConstitution of India proclaims India a "sovereign socialist secular democratic republic". The wordsecular was inserted into the Preamble by theForty-second Amendment Act of 1976. It mandates equal treatment and tolerance of all religions. India does not have an official state religion; it enshrines the right to practice, preach, and propagate any religion. No religious instruction is imparted in government-supported schools. InS. R. Bommai v. Union of India, theSupreme Court of India held that secularism was an integral tenet of the Constitution and that there was separation of state and religion.[123]
Freedom of religion is afundamental right according to the Indian Constitution. The Constitution also suggests auniform civil code for its citizens as aDirective Principle.[124] This has not been implemented until now as Directive Principles are Constitutionally unenforceable. The Supreme Court has further held that the enactment of a uniform civil code all at once may be counter-productive to the unity of the nation, and only a gradual progressive change should be brought about (Pannalal Bansilal v State of Andhra Pradesh, 1996).[125] InMaharishi Avadesh v Union of India (1994) the Supreme Court dismissed a petition seeking a writ ofmandamus against the government to introduce a common civil code, and thus laid the responsibility of its introduction on thelegislature.[126]
Major religious communities not based in India continue to be governed by their own personal laws. While Muslims, Christians, Zoroastrians, and Jews have personal laws exclusive to themselves; Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, and Sikhs are governed by a single personal law known asHindu personal law. Article 25 (2)(b) of the Constitution of India states that references to Hindus include "persons professing the Sikh, Jain, or Buddhist religion".[127] Furthermore, theHindu Marriage Act, 1955 defines the legal status of Jains, Buddhists, and Sikhs as legal Hindus but not "Hindus by religion".[128] Supreme Court in 2005 gave verdict that Jains, Sikhs, and Buddhist are part of broader Hindu fold, as they are Indic religions and interconnected to each other, though they are distinct religions.[129]
Religion plays a major role in the Indian way of life.[130] Rituals, worship, and other religious activities are very prominent in an individual's daily life; it is also a principal organiser of social life. The degree of religiosity varies among individuals; in recent decades, religious orthodoxy and observances have become less common in Indian society, particularly among young urban-dwellers.[citation needed]
The vast majority of Indians engage in religious rituals daily.[131] Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home.[132] Observation of rituals vary greatly among regions, villages, and individuals. Devout Hindus perform daily chores such as worshipingpuja, fire sacrifice calledYajna[citation needed] at the dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foods before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts likeVedas, andPuranas singing hymns in praise of gods.[132]
A notable feature in religious ritual is the division between purity and pollution. Religious acts presuppose some degree of impurity, or defilement for the practitioner, which must be overcome or neutralised, before or during ritual procedures. Purification, usually with water, is thus a typical feature of most religious action.[132] Other characteristics include a belief in the efficacy of sacrifice and concept of merit, gained through the performance of charity or good works, that will accumulate over time and reduce sufferings in the next world.[132]
Muslims offerfive daily prayers at specific times of the day, indicated byadhan (call to prayer) from the local mosques. Before offering prayers, they must ritually clean themselves by performingwudu, which involves washing parts of the body that are generally exposed to dirt or dust. A recent study by theSachar Committee found that 3–4% of Muslim children study inmadrasas (Islamic schools).[133]
Dietary habits in India are significantly influenced by religion. According to a survey, 31% of Indian population claims to bevegetarian, and mainly practicelacto-vegetarianism.[134][135][136] Vegetarianism is less common amongSikhs, Muslims, Christians,Bahá'ís,Parsis, and Jews.Despite the majority of population having no objection to meat consumption, globally India has the lowest meat consumption per capita.[137] Non-vegetarian Indians mostly preferpoultry, fish, otherseafood, goat, and sheep as their sources of meat.[138] Hinduism forbids beef while Islam forbids pork. The smaller populations of Christians, tribals, and some dalit communities have no objection to eating either beef or pork.[139] Jainism requires followers, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. Furthermore, the religion also forbidsJains from eating any vegetable that involves digging it from the ground. This rule, therefore, excludes allroot vegetables such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, ginger, carrots, garlic, radishes, etc. from a Jain diet.
Occasions like birth,marriage, and death involve what are often elaborate sets of religious customs. In Hinduism, major life-cycle rituals includeannaprashan (a baby's first intake of solid food),upanayanam ("sacred thread ceremony" undergone by boys belonging to some upper-castes such as Brahmin and Kshatriya only), andshraadh (paying homage to a deceased individual).[140][141] According to the findings of a 1995 national research paper, for most people in India, abetrothal of a young couple placing an expectation upon an exact date and time of a future wedding was a matter decided by the parents in consultation withastrologers.[140] A significant reduction in the proportion of arranged marriages has however taken place since 1995, reflecting an incremental change.[citation needed]
Muslims practice a series of life-cycle rituals that differ from those of Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists.[142] Several rituals mark the first days of life—including the whispering call to prayer, first bath, and shaving of the head. Religious instruction begins early. Malecircumcision usually takes place after birth; in some families, it may be delayed until after the onset of puberty.[142]
Marriage requires a payment by the husband to the wife, called Meher, and the solemnisation of a marital contract in a social gathering.[142] After the burial of the dead, friends and relatives gather to console the bereaved, read and recite the Quran, and pray for the soul of the deceased.[142] Indian Islam is distinguished by the emphasis it places on shrines commemorating great Sufi saints.[142]
![Mahamagam Festival is a holy festival celebrated once in twelve years in Tamil Nadu. Mahamagam Festival, which is held at Kumbakonam. This festival is also called as Kumbamela of South.[143][144]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMahamaham_Festival_in_Kumbakonam.jpg)
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Many Hindu families have their own family patron deity or thekuladevata.[145] This deity is common to a lineage or a clan of several families who are connected to each other through a common ancestor.[146][147] TheKhandoba of Jejuri is an example of a Kuladevata of some Maharashtrian families; he is a common Kuladevata to several castes ranging from Brahmins toDalits.[148] The practice of worshipping local or territorial deities as Kuladevata began in the period of theYadava dynasty.[149] Other family deities of the people of Maharashtra areBhavani ofTuljapur,Mahalaxmi ofKolhapur,Renuka ofMahur, andBalaji of Tirupati.
India hosts numerous pilgrimage sites belonging to many religions. Hindus worldwide recognise several Indian holy cities, includingAllahabad (officially known as Prayagraj),Haridwar,Varanasi,Ujjain,Rameshwaram, andVrindavan. Notable temple cities includePuri, which hosts a majorJagannath temple andRath Yatra celebration;Tirumala - Tirupati, home to theTirumala Venkateswara Temple; andKatra, home to theVaishno Devi temple.
Badrinath,Puri,Dwarka, andRameswaram compose the main pilgrimage circuit ofChar Dham (four abodes) hosting the four holiestHindu temples:Badrinath Temple,Jagannath Temple,Dwarkadheesh Temple andRamanathaswamy Temple, respectively. TheHimalayan towns ofBadrinath,Kedarnath,Gangotri, andYamunotri compose the smallerChota Char Dham (mini four abodes) pilgrimage circuit. TheKumbh Mela (the "pitcher festival") is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is held every four years; the location is rotated among Allahabad (Prayagraj), Haridwar,Nashik, andUjjain. TheThalaimaippathi atSwamithope is the leading pilgrim center for theAyyavazhis.
Seven of theEight Great Places of Buddhism are in India.Bodh Gaya,Sarnath, andKushinagar are the places where important events in the life of Gautama Buddha took place.Sanchi hosts a Buddhiststupa erected by the emperorAshoka. Many Buddhist monasteries dot the Himalayan foothills of India, whereBuddhism remains a major presence. These include theRumtek Monastery,Enchey Monastery, andPemayangtse Monastery inSikkim, theTawang Monastery inArunachal Pradesh, theKye Monastery andTabo Monastery inSpiti, theGhum Monastery inDarjeeling, andDurpin Dara Monastery in Kalimpong, theThikse Monastery inLeh, theNamgyal Monastery inDharamshala, among many others.
For Sunni Muslims, theDargah Shareef of KhwazaMoinuddin Chishti inAjmer is a major pilgrimage site.[150] Other Islamic pilgrimages include those to the Tomb of SheikhSalim Chishti inFatehpur Sikri,Jama Masjid in Delhi, and toHaji Ali Dargah in Mumbai.Dilwara Temples inMount Abu,Palitana,Pavapuri,Girnar, andShravanabelagola are notable pilgrimage sites (tirtha) in Jainism.
TheHarmandir Sahib inAmritsar is the most sacredgurdwara of Sikhism.[151]
Relatively new pilgrimage sites include thesamadhi ofMeher Baba inMeherabad, which is visited by his followers from around the world[152] and the Saibaba temple inShirdi.[153]
Hinduism contains many different sub-cultures just like most other religions. The major aspects outlined above hold true for the majority of the Hindu population, but not all. Just as each state is home to an individual language, Hinduism harbours various sub-cultures whose traditions may or may not be shared by other Indians. A sect from Gujarat called thePrajapatis for example, holds water as the sacred ornament to every meal. Before and after a meal, an individual is expected to pour water in the palms of their right hand and sip the water three times.[154] This is often seen as a purification gesture: food is regarded as being holy and every individual must purify themselves before touching their food.
Other minor sects in India carry no specific name, but they are uniquely identified by the last names of each family. This convention is used more frequently in South India than in North India. For example, a relatively prominent sect in southern India prohibits making important decisions, commencing new tasks, and doing other intellectually or spiritually engaged actions after sunset. Historians believe that this tradition was derived from the concept ofRahukaalam, in which Hindus believe that a specific period of the day is inauspicious. Stringent family beliefs are thought to have led to the development of a more constrained religious hierarchy.[155] Over time, this belief was extended to discourage taking major actions and even staying awake for long periods after sunset. Examples of families which follow this tradition includeGudivada,Padalapalli,Pantham, andKashyap.[154]
India has a population of 123 crore per a 2012 demographic survey by Indian government.[156] According to the 2012 WIN-Gallup Global Index of Religion and Atheism report, 81% of Indians were religious, 13% were non-religious, 3% were convinced atheists, and 3% were unsure or did not respond.[122]
Cambridge University Press in 2004 demographic study, have found that there are 102.87 millionatheists andagnostics living in India, thus constituting 9.1% of the total population, out of total 1.1296 billion people respectively.[157]
Religious politics, particularly that expressed by theHindutva movement, has strongly influencedIndian politics in the last quarter of the 20th century. Many of the elements underlying India'scasteism andcommunalism originated during the colonial era, when the colonial government frequently politicised religion in an attempt to stave off increasingnationalistic sentiments in India.[158] TheIndian Councils Act 1909 (widely known as the Morley-Minto Reforms Act), which established separate Hindu and Muslim electorates for the Imperial Legislature and provincial councils, was particularly divisive, increasing tensions between the two communities.[159]
Due to the high degree of oppression faced by the lower castes, the Constitution of India included provisions foraffirmative action for certain sections of Indian society. Many states ruled by theBharatiya Janata Party (BJP) introduced laws that made conversion more difficult; they assert that such conversions are often forced or allured.[160] The BJP, a national political party, also gained widespread media attention after its leaders associated themselves with theRam Janmabhoomi movement and other prominent religious issues.[161]
A well-known accusation that Indian political parties make for their rivals is that they play vote bank politics, meaning give political support to issues for the sole purpose of gaining the votes of members of a particular community. Both theCongress Party and the BJP have been accused of exploiting the people by indulging in vote bank politics. TheShah Bano case, a divorce lawsuit, generated much controversy when the Congress was accused of appeasing the Muslim orthodoxy by bringing in a parliamentary amendment to negate theSupreme Court's decision. After the2002 Gujarat violence, there were allegations of political parties indulging in vote bank politics.[162] All the political parties in India are known to grant money to the StateWaqf Boards to appease a particular community.[163][164][165]
Caste-based politics is also important in India; caste-based discrimination and thereservation system continue to be major issues that are hotly debated.[166][167]
Communalism has played a key role in shaping the religious history of modern India. AfterIndian independence in 1947, India waspartitioned along religious lines into two states—the Muslim-majorityDominion of Pakistan (comprising what is now theIslamic Republic of Pakistan and thePeople's Republic of Bangladesh) and the Hindu-majorityUnion of India (later theRepublic of India). The partition led to rioting among Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in Punjab, Bengal, Delhi, and other parts of India; 500,000 died as a result of the violence. The twelve million refugees that moved between the newly founded nations of India and Pakistan composed one of the largest mass migrations in modern history.[Δ][168] Since its independence, India has periodically witnessed large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities. The Republic of India is secular; theIndian government recognises no official religion.
Communal conflicts have periodically plagued India since it became independent in 1947.[171] The roots of such strife lie largely in the underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities, which emerged under the Raj and during the bloodyPartition of India. Such conflict also stems from the competing ideologies ofHindu nationalism versusIslamic fundamentalism; both are prevalent in parts of the Hindu and Muslim populations. This issue has plagued India since before independence. The lack of education among the masses and the ease with which corrupt politicians can take advantage of the same has been attributed as the major reason for religious conflicts in India. Even though Freedom of religion is an integral part of the India constitution, the inability to hold a communal mob accountable for its collectove actions has limited the exercise of religious freedom in India.
Alongside other major Indian independence leaders,Mahatma Gandhi and hisShanti sainiks ("peace soldiers") worked to quell early outbreaks of religious conflict inBengal, including riots inCalcutta (now inWest Bengal) andNoakhali District (in modern-day Bangladesh) that accompaniedMuhammad Ali Jinnah'sDirect Action Day, which was launched on 16 August 1946. These conflicts, waged largely with rocks and knives and accompanied by widespread looting and arson, were crude affairs. Explosives and firearms, which are rarely found in India, were far less likely to be used.[172]
Major post-independence communal conflicts include the1984 Anti-Sikh riots, which followedOperation Blue Star by theIndian Army; heavy artillery, tanks, and helicopters were employed against theSikh partisans inside the Harmandir Sahib, causing heavy damage to Sikhism's holiestGurdwara. According to the Indian government estimates, the assault caused the deaths of up to 100 soldiers, 250 militants, and hundreds of civilians.[173]
This triggeredIndira Gandhi's assassination by her outraged Sikh bodyguards on 31 October 1984, which set off a four-day period during which Sikhs were massacred; TheGovernment of India reported 2,700 Sikh deaths however human rights organisations and newspapers report the death toll to be 10,000–17,000. In the aftermath of the riot, theGovernment of India reported 20,000 had fled the city, however thePUCL reported "at least" 50,000 displaced persons.[174]
The most affected regions were neighbourhoods inDelhi. Human rights organisations and the newspapers believe the massacre was organised.[175] The collusion of political officials in the massacres and the failure to prosecute any killers alienated normalSikhs and increased support for theKhalistan movement. TheAkal Takht, the governing religious body ofSikhism, considers the killings to be agenocide.[176]
Other incidents include the 1992Bombay riots that followed the demolition of theBabri Mosque as a result of theAyodhya debate, and the2002 Gujarat violence where 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus were killed and which was preceded by theGodhra Train Burning.[177] Lesser incidents plague many towns and villages; the representative was the killing of five people inMau, Uttar Pradesh, during Hindu–Muslim rioting, which was triggered by the proposed celebration of a Hindu festival.[177]
Official portal providing access to Karnataka's High Court judgments and orders.
The major explanation for large scale conversion lies in the efforts of three groups of people: mariners, merchants and missionaries. ... The missionaries, mostly Sufis, played a major role, too, all over India; their compassion and common sense drew into the Islamic fold great numbers of non-Hindu forest and nomadic people and the lower-caste Hindus.
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