Religion in Egypt plays a significant role in the country's social structure and is institutionally supported by law.Islam is designated as the state religion ofEgypt, although precise figures on religious affiliation are unavailable due to the exclusion of religious data from the 1996 census onwards. As a result, existing statistics are based on estimates provided by religious organizations and independent agencies. The majority of the population is believed to beSunni Muslim, comprising approximately 90%, while the second largest religious group is theCopticChristian community, whose share is estimated to range between 5 and 15%.[note 1] These figures remain controversial, with Copts asserting that census data have historically underrepresented their actual numbers.[1]
Two major religious institutions are based in Egypt. TheAl-Azhar Mosque, established in 970CE by theFatimids, functions as Egypt's earliest Islamic university. TheCoptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, founded in the mid-1st century bySaint Mark, serves as the central institution for the Coptic Orthodox Christian community.[2]
Egypt's religious history spans millennia, evolving from ancient polytheism to Christianity and later Islam. Shaped by both native traditions and foreign influences, religion has profoundly shaped Egyptian society.[3]
Despite the customary division of Egyptian history into discrete eras,Ancient Egypt,Greco-Roman, andIslamic Egypt, strong threads of continuity run through Egypt's religious and cultural life.[4] Many popular customs, rites, and beliefs practiced today, such as funerary laments and practices, rural food traditions, and concepts of the afterlife, can be traced to ancient Egyptian origins, often unconsciously preserved beneath new religious forms.[4] From bread baked in the sun to ritual mourning gestures and vernacular expressions, elements of ancient culture have persisted through centuries of conquest, conversion, and change. Even when new religions supplanted older ones, Egyptians frequently reinterpreted them through inherited cultural lenses, ensuring that the essence of their civilizational identity remained intact beneath outward transformations.[4]
Ancient Egyptian religion emerged in prehistory and its traditions remained vital for over three thousand years. While beliefs shifted across dynasties, it remained centered on a pantheon of deities tied to natural and cosmic forces.
Religion was integrated with the state, grounded in myth and ritual. Thepharaoh, seen as semi-divine, acted as a bridge between gods and people, justifying massive state investment in temples and ceremonies.[3] Alongside state religion, personal devotion flourished through prayer and offerings, especially as pharaonic authority weakened.[3] Funerary practices were central, aimed at ensuring life after death throughmummification, tomb goods, and offerings.[3]
Some gods, such asRa (often merged withAmun asAmun-Ra) andIsis, became especially prominent. DuringAkhenaten's reign in the 14th century BCE, a short-lived religion focusing on a cult ofAten was established and worship of other figures suppressed.[5] After Akhenaten, the broader pantheon of Egyptian polytheism was reestablished, and later rulers of Egypt made effort to suppress memory of Akhenaten's rule and religion.[6]
Though it endured through foreign rule (Persian, Macedonian and Roman), ancient Egyptian religion eventually declined with the rise ofChristianity.[3] Christianity arrived in the first century CE. According to tradition,Saint Mark founded the Church inAlexandria in 42 CE, beginning a patriarchal succession that continues today.[3]
Roman persecution shaped a distinctCoptic tradition. Thedevelopment of Christian monasticism in Egypt[7]and the Christianisingmissionary activity of the Copts[8]had influence well beyond the boundaries of Egypt.[9]
By the fourth century, tensions with other centers of Christianity emerged. Most Egyptian Christians rejected theCouncil of Chalcedon's (451 CE) doctrine of two natures in Christ, adhering instead tomiaphysitism, the doctrine of one united divine nature.[3] By the sixth century, the Coptic Church had an independent hierarchy led by the Pope of Alexandria and a governingsynod.[3]
Islam was introduced to Egypt in the seventh century CE during theearly Muslim conquests, initiating a profound religious transformation that would eventually make Egypt a major center of the Islamic world.[3]
The conquest was led byAmr ibn al-As, a close companion of theProphet Muhammad, completing the conquest of the country by 647 CE. Religious zeal, along with social and economic incentives, propelled expansion of Islam beyond theArabian Peninsula.[3]
Under Muslim rule, Christians and Jews were recognized asPeople of the Book and granted protected status asdhimmis. In return for this protection, they were required to pay a special tax called jizya which exempted them from military service. Though conversion was not initially forced, the proportion of Muslims increased steadily. By the ninth century CE, Islam had become the majority religion in Egypt.[3]
In 969 CE, theFatimid Caliphate, adherents ofIsmailism, a branch ofShia Islam, conquered Egypt. Though they established mosques, institutions, andAl-Azhar University, one of the world's earliest universities, they failed to entrench Ismailism among the population. Internal sectarian conflict, combined with political instability, contributed to the reestablishment of Sunni Islam under theAyyubid dynasty in 1171, led bySaladin.[3]
TheMamluks, a military caste originally formed of enslaved soldiers under Ayyubid rule, eventually seized power and governed Egypt until theOttoman conquest in 1517. Throughout these periods, Sunni Islam became entrenched as the dominant religious identity, with Al-Azhar emerging as a preeminent center of Sunni Islamic learning.[3]
Egypt's religious composition is predominantly Muslim, with Christians representing the largest religious minority. ThePew-Templeton Global Religious Futures project estimated that in 2010 94.9% of Egyptians identified as Muslim, 5.1% as Christian, and less than 1% as adherents of other religions.[11]
Census data since 1927 has recorded a steady decline in the Christian population, from 8.3% that year to 5.7% by 1996.[2] However, these official figures have been widely disputed. Christian leaders and sources have long argued that they are undercounted in state statistics, with unofficial estimates ranging from 10% to 25% of the population.[16]
In 2017, Al Ahram and the Washington Institute for Near East Policy estimated the Christian population at 10–15%,[20] while international surveys have reported comparable results. Afrobarometer (2016) and Arab Barometer (2019) estimated the Christian population at 10.3% and 9.6%, respectively.[21][22]
The CIA World Factbook (2015) similarly reported Egypt's population as approximately 90%Sunni Muslim and 10% Christian,[23] an estimate echoed by the U.S. State Department, the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office, and other international agencies.[28]
The majority of Muslims in Egypt areSunni, with many affiliated with variousSufiorders.[29] TheAhmadiyya community is estimated at around 50,000 individuals.[30] Estimates of Egypt’sShia population, includingTwelvers andIsmailis, range from 800,000 to as many as two to three million individuals.[34]
Most Egyptian Christians belong to theCoptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, anOriental Orthodox denomination.[36] Other denominations include Armenian Apostolic, Catholic, Maronite, Anglican, and theGreek Orthodox Church of Alexandria, which has around 350,000 adherents.[26] Church figures, includingPope Shenouda III of Alexandria and Bishop Morkos ofShubra, claimed in 2008 that the number of Orthodox Christians exceeded 12 million, with some estimates reaching 16 million.[1][37] Protestant churches report a membership of approximately 300,000,[38] and theCoptic Catholic Church is believed to have a comparable figure.[39][40]
A small but historically notableBaháʼí community exists in Egypt, estimated in 2022 at between 1,000 and 2,000 members.[41] The Jewish community, once numbering around 80,000 prior to the 1953dissolution of the monarchy and subsequent exodus during theArab–Israeli conflict, had declined to an estimated 13 individuals by 2014.[42]
Public identification asatheist oragnostic varies but is generally rare due to the risk of legal repercussions and social stigmatization. The 2020 United States report on international religious freedom states that there are no reliable estimates for the number of atheists in Egypt.[43]
Article 64 of the Egyptian Constitution formally guarantees absolute freedom of belief and worship. In practice, however, this freedom is limited by state policies, legal constraints, and sectarian tensions. The constitution officially recognizes only Islam, Christianity, and Judaism, granting these faiths the right to public worship, while denying equivalent recognition to other religions.[44]
In 2006, Egypt'sSupreme Administrative Court reaffirmed this limitation, legally distinguishing the three "recognized" religions from all others, effectively delegitimizing non-Abrahamic faiths.[45] As a result, members of unrecognized religions were denied essential documents unless they either omitted or falsified their religious identity. A 2008 court ruling allowed adherents of unrecognized faiths to obtain identification documents by leaving the religion field blank.[46]
Conversion between religions is legally complex and asymmetrical. Conversion to Islam is generally permitted without difficulty, whereas individuals converting from Islam to another faith, particularly Christianity, face serious bureaucratic and legal hurdles, including the risk of being prosecuted for document fraud.[47] TheCoptic Orthodox Church has expressed concern over this imbalance, citing systemic pressures encouraging conversion to Islam.[48] Authorities have cited national security and potential social unrest as justifications for detaining converts from Islam.[49]
In 2007, a Cairo court denied 45 individuals the right to re-identify as Christian after having previously converted to Islam.[50] This ruling was overturned in 2008 by the Supreme Administrative Court, which allowed 12 individuals to amend their religious status, although the new documents indicated their temporary conversion to Islam.[51][52][53]
Under Egypt's personal status law, Muslim men are legally permitted to marry non-Muslim women. However, non-Muslim men are not allowed to marry Muslim women.[54][55]
A 2020 report by thePew Research Center ranked Egypt among the top five out of 25 countries for high levels of social hostilities involving religion.[56] Although the 2021 U.S. State Department report noted government efforts to curb sectarian violence, including the execution of the perpetrator who murdered Christian priest Samaan Shehata,[57] the country still faces ongoing challenges. As of 2022,Freedom House gave Egypt a score of 2 out of 4 for religious freedom, and a total of 21 out of 100 for political rights and civil liberties.[58]
Coptic Christians, Egypt's largest religious minority, have faced persistent legal and social discrimination, particularly following the 1952 coup led byGamal Abdel Nasser.[59][60] Until 2005, presidential approval was required even for minor church repairs. Although this restriction was transferred to governors, significant bureaucratic hurdles remain, and discrimination continues to be more pronounced for churches than for mosques.[61][62]
Although Muslims and Christians share a national identity, sectarian violence has periodically erupted. Major incidents include the 2000–2001Kosheh massacres, which resulted in 21 deaths,[63] attacks on churches in 2006,[64] the 2010Nag Hammadi massacre,[65] and the2011 Alexandria bombing which killed 21 people.[66]
In 2002, during the presidency ofHosni Mubarak, the government officially recognized CopticChristmas (January 7) as a national holiday.[67] Nonetheless, Christian citizens reportedly remain underrepresented in key areas such as law enforcement, national security, and public office, and have raised concerns regarding workplace discrimination based on religious identity.[68][22]
In 2013, the Christian nonprofit organizationOpen Doors ranked Egypt 25th out of 50 countries on its World Watch List of nations where Christians face the highest levels of persecution. By 2025, Egypt had dropped to 40th place, reflecting a significant improvement. While still facing challenges, it ranked among the least dangerous countries in the region for Christians, followingJordan,Turkey, andQatar.[69]
Surveys conducted in recent years reflect shifting trends in religious identification. According to the 2018Arab Barometer Wave V survey, approximately 11% of Egyptians identified as not religious, with 20% of youth respondents describing themselves as such.[70][71] In the same Arab Barometer 2018 Wave V survey, 90.4% were Muslim, 9.6% were Christian, and 0.1% had no religion.[72]
However, the 2021–2022 Arab Barometer survey reported a resurgence in religious identification, with 95% of Egyptians describing themselves as religious or somewhat religious, a 6% increase from the 2018 figures.[73][74]
Islam has been thestate religion of Egypt since the 1980 constitutional amendment to Article 2; prior to that, Egypt was officially recognized as a secular state. According to theconstitution of Egypt, all new legislation must at least implicitly align withIslamic law.
The majority of Egyptian Muslims adhere toSunni Islam, predominantly following theHanafi school, which is administered by the state through theMinistry of Religious Endowments, often referred to asEl Awqaf (الأوقاف). This ministry oversees all mosques and supervises Muslim clerics across the country. It also trainsImams in vocational institutions and atAl-Azhar University, and maintains commissions authorized to issuefatwas on religious matters. Although the Hanafi school remains dominant, elements of theShafi'i andMaliki schools are also present and occasionally intermixed.[75]
A significant number of Sunni Muslims in Egypt are affiliated with nativeSufiorders. Sufism has been present since the early days of Islam in Egypt and continues to flourish, particularly in rural areas. Theological elites, especially those associated withAl-Azhar University, the preeminent Sunni institution globally and one of the world’s oldest universities, founded circa 970 CE.[29]
Historically, Egypt has also played a central role in Shia Islam. TheFatimid Caliphate, a Shia Ismaili dynasty, established Cairo as its capital and made Egypt the heart of its empire. Today, Shia Muslims in Egypt are a small minority, estimated by scholars to represent around 1% of the population, though figures range between 800,000 and 2 million.[76] This includes adherents of bothTwelver andIsmaili branches. There are also minor populations ofMu'tazila,Dawoodi Bohra, andAhmadi Muslims, along with a number of expatriates affiliated with other sects.[43]
Religious practice and identity in Egypt varies, with theologians from Al-Azhar tending to promote orthodox interpretations of Islam, while popular preachers and rural populations often adopt Sufi-influenced practices. Among the urban middle and upper classes, religious expression is frequently seen either as a private matter or as a principle that should shape public life. Islamic revival movements, spanning different social classes, have been present in cities and villages for decades, reflecting the dynamic and diverse role of religion in Egyptian society.
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The Coptic Christian population in Egypt constitutes the largest Christian community in both theMiddle East andNorth Africa, estimated to comprise between 5% and 15% of Egypt's population depending on the source.[35][77] Approximately 95% of Egyptian Christians belong to theCoptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria,[24][25] anOriental Orthodox church headed by thePope of the Coptic Orthodox Church. The Church, traditionally believed to have been founded in the 1st century CE bySaint Mark, is a cornerstone of Egypt’s enduring Christian heritage.[78][79][80][81]
In addition to the Coptic Orthodox Church, Egypt is home to a wide array of Christian communities, both native and expatriate. These include members of theCoptic Catholic Church,Protestant denominations, and various Eastern and Western churches concentrated in urban centers such asCairo andAlexandria.
The following table provides an overview of the various Apostolic,Catholic, andOrthodox churches present in Egypt, apart from theCoptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria:
| Church | Estimated adherents | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Coptic Catholic Church | ~210,000[26] | AnEastern Catholic Church in communion with thePope in Rome; led byIbrahim Isaac Sidrak. |
| Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria | ~350,000[26] | Also 1.5 million adherents across Africa; led byPatriarch Theodore II.[82] |
| Melkite Greek Catholic Church | ~7,000[26] | Has up to 50,000 expatriates globally; administered by aProtosyncellus. |
| Armenian Apostolic Church | ~7,000[26] | Most follow the Holy See ofEchmiadzin rather than theHoly See of Cilicia. |
| Latin Church | ~7,000[26] | Primarily of foreign descent; native Egyptian adherents are few and mostly through intermarriage. |
| Maronite Church | ~5,000[26] | AnEastern Catholic Church based in Lebanon. |
| Armenian Catholic Church | ~1,200[26] | Minority Armenian community. |
| Chaldean Catholic Church | ~500[26] | Originating in Iraq. |
| Syriac Catholic Church | ~2,000[26] | Another Eastern Catholic rite. |
| Syriac Orthodox Church | 450–500 | Mostly students at theCatechetical School of Alexandria or foreign students at Egyptian universities. |
The following table provides an overview of the variousProtestant denominations active in Egypt:
| Church | Estimated adherents |
|---|---|
| Evangelical Church of Egypt (Synod of the Nile) | ~140,000 |
| Assemblies of God | ~40,000 |
| Free Methodist Church | ~10,000 |
| Episcopal/Anglican Province of Alexandria | 10,000–15,000 |
| Christian Brethren Church | ~5,000 |
| Pentecostal Church of God | ~3,500 |
| Pentecostal Holiness Church | ~1,400 |
| Church of God of Prophecy | ~1,100 |
| Seventh-day Adventist Church | 852 |
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Prior to 1956, Egypt was home to a thriving Jewish community. According to the 1948 census, there were 65,639 Jews in Egypt, including adherents ofKaraite tradition. Egyptian Jews were deeply integrated into the country's social, economic, and political life. Among them were prominent figures such as the nationalist writer and satiristYaqub Sanu (Abu Naddara), composerDawoud Husni, celebrated singerLeila Mourad, and pioneering filmmakerTogo Mizrahi.
Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, Jews from across theOttoman Empire and Europe were drawn to Egypt by the comparatively tolerant religious environment that prevailed at the time. However, this climate changed drastically following the 1956Suez Crisis, when PresidentGamal Abdel Nasser initiated the mass expulsion of Jews. Many were stripped of their Egyptian citizenship, and their properties were seized. This marked the beginning of a steady wave of Jewish emigration from Egypt, which intensified further after theSix-Day War in 1967.
By mid-2016, only six Jews remained inCairo, all women over the age of 65, including their spiritual leader,Magda Tania Haroun.[42] An additional twelve Jews resided inAlexandria, where their spiritual leader was Ben Youssef Gaon.[83] As of 2021, estimates suggest that fewer than 20 Jews remain in Egypt.[84]
TheAhmadiyya community in Egypt is estimated to number between 7,000 and 50,000 adherents.[85][86] The movement was established in Egypt in 1922,[87] but has faced increased repression and societal hostility in the 21st century.
TheAl-Azhar University, Egypt's most influential Sunni institution, has officially denounced the Ahmadiyya movement, labeling its doctrines as heretical.[88] Egyptian authorities have periodically detained members of the community under blasphemy and defamation laws that target religious minorities or sects deemed to deviate from mainstream Islam.[89][90]
On 15 March 2010, nine Ahmadis were arrested on charges related to their religious affiliation. These arrests drew condemnation from Egyptian and international human rights organizations, which criticized the use of the emergency law to suppress religious expression.[91][92]
TheBaháʼí Faith has maintained a presence in Egypt since the early 20th century. In 1925, Egypt became the first Islamic-majority country to legally recognize the Baháʼí Faith as a religion distinct from Islam. However, this recognition gradually eroded following the1952 revolution and the subsequentdissolution of the monarchy in 1953.
In 1960, Law 263 formally banned all Baháʼí institutions and community activities in Egypt, initiating a period of sustained legal and societal marginalization. The ban was followed by increasing administrative and bureaucratic restrictions. Baháʼís were barred from listing their religion on national identity cards, which are mandatory for accessing public services, registering births and deaths, enrolling children in schools, opening bank accounts, and acquiring employment.[93] Some adherents reported self-imposed house arrest to avoid police encounters due to a lack of valid documentation.[93]
The legal status of Baháʼís remained unresolved until a landmark ruling in 2008. The Cairo Court of Administrative Justice ruled in favor of allowing Baháʼís to obtain birth certificates and national identification cards, provided the religion field was left blank.[46] The ruling adopted a compromise solution, granting access to civil documentation while reaffirming the state's refusal to officially recognize the Baháʼí Faith as a religion.[94][95]
Estimates of the Baháʼí population in Egypt vary. In 2006, informal estimates suggested approximately 2,000 adherents,[96] while other sources reported as many as 6,900 Baháʼís in 2010.[97]
Despite the 2008 legal ruling, the Baháʼí community in Egypt continues to face societal hostility and informal discrimination. Following the2011 Egyptian revolution, tensions persisted, including documented cases of arson targeting Baháʼí homes.[98] Baháʼí leaders have issued public appeals for religious coexistence and civic dialogue.[99]
Although freedom of belief is constitutionally guaranteed in Egypt, expressions of atheism and irreligion have long been subject to legal and social constraints. Public identification as an atheist can invite prosecution under blasphemy laws, harassment, or social exclusion.[100][101]
In 2000, an openly atheist Egyptian writer was charged with insulting Islam in four of his books, following his call to form an association for atheists.[102] Blasphemy cases in Egypt require a private complaint, often filed by religious figures or conservative lawyers. Defendants have included figures such asAlber Saber andKareem Amer, both convicted under defamation laws for comments critical of religion.[100][103]
While Egypt does not codify any punishment for apostasy, a 2011Pew Research poll reported that 63% of Egyptian Muslims supported the death penalty for Muslims who leave their faith.[104] Fatwas from some clerics atAl-Azhar University have called for the execution of individuals deemed guilty of blasphemy, particularly if the state fails to prosecute them.[105][106]
After the2011 Egyptian revolution, media reports noted a rise in Egyptians publicly identifying as non-religious, especially through digital platforms.[107] Atheism and skepticism are not new in Egypt, but increased visibility has been observed, particularly among youth.
In 2014, the Egyptian government introduced efforts to counter this trend, with theMinistry of Youth and theMinistry of Awqaf jointly launching a national campaign to curb the perceived spread of atheism, which portrayed irreligion as a threat to societal values and national cohesion.[108] In 2018, Amr Hamroush, head of parliament's Religious Affairs Committee, suggested a bill to criminalize atheism, asserting that it constituted contempt of religion.[109]
Discrimination against nonbelievers in Egypt primarily stems from institutional and legal structures influenced by religious authorities.[100][101] The state does not allow individuals to register as irreligious or atheist on official documents, and they are instead listed according to their parents' religion, typically Islam or Christianity.[102][needs update]
The Coptic Church was a missionary and aggressive body up to the 4th century, carrying its missions into Abyssinia and beyond, almost to the equator.
All communal Christian monasticism stems, either directly or indirectly, from the Egyptian example. [...] Egyptian Christians (Copts) had missionaries in northern Europe — Saint Moritz the Theban [...] was drafted into the Roman army and ended up preaching the Gospel in the Swiss Alps where a small town and monastery are named after him — and there is some indication, but no conclusive evidence, of a Coptic missionary movement even as far afield as Ireland [...].
Egypt has the Middle East's largest Orthodox population (an estimated 4 million Egyptians, or 5% of the population), mainly members of the Coptic Orthodox Church.
The Coptic Orthodox Church is the main Christian Church in Egypt, where it has between 6 and 11 million members.
Coptic Christians make up the majority of Egypt's roughly 9 million Christians. About 1 million more Coptic Christians are spread across Africa, Europe, the United Kingdom and the United States, according to the World Council of Churches.
