There are more or less distinct areas in medieval Europe where certain predominant foodstuffs may be discerned. In theBritish Isles, northernFrance, theLow Countries, the northern German-speaking areas,Scandinavia and theBaltic the climate was generally too harsh for the cultivation ofgrapes andolives. In the south, wine was the common drink for both rich and poor alike (though the commoner usually had to settle for cheap secondpressing wine) whilebeer was the commoner's drink in the north and wine an expensive import. Citrus fruits (though not the kinds most common today) andpomegranates were common around the Mediterranean. Driedfigs anddates occurred quite frequently in the north, but were used rather sparingly in cooking.[1]
Olive oil was among the ubiquitous ingredients around the Mediterranean, but remained an expensive import in the north where oil ofpoppy, walnut, hazel and filbert was the most affordable alternative. Butter and lard, especially after theBlack Death, was used in considerable quantities in the northern and northwestern regions, especially in theLow Countries. Almost universal in middle and upper class cooking all over Europe was thealmond, which was in the ubiquitous and highly versatilealmond milk, which was used as a substitute in dishes that otherwise required eggs or milk, though the bitter variety came along much later.[2]
Though various forms of dishes consisting of batter or dough cooked in fat, likecrêpes,fritters anddoughnuts were common in most of Europe, they were especially popular among Germans and known askrapfen (Old High German: "claw, hook") and were quite similar to the deep-fried dough pastries of today. The extensive use oflard andbutter for cooking and a diet that was perceived as especially fatty gained Germans a reputation as being the "fat Germans". The fasting regulations of theCatholic Church posed particular problems to the German population.Olives could not be cultivated and olive oil was an expensive import. Oils made from various nuts were available, but in relatively short supply. By far, the most common sources of fat werebutter and, above all,lard. The price of fish was generally higher, and while it was unaffordable to most people for most of the time, the need to use fish for fasting days could mean considerable increases in expenses for the wealthier households. Mustard was used in other parts of Europe long before the Middle Ages, but seemed to be especially common in Germany. A 14th-century travel account byEustache Deschamps, a French poet, shows his considerable discontent with the German custom of smearing generous amounts of mustard on just about every type of meat.[3]
It was rare that recipes for use in dire situations were included in recipe collections, but one example from a cookbook in Low German has been preserved.[4] It gives instructions for a wartime stew consisting of any available greens and vegetables to be boiled in animal stomachs or intestines, an effective method in situations where no proper kitchenware would be available. In theFirst Margrave War, the city ofNuremberg was able to feed its citizens properly and still emerge victorious through careful planning, extensive stockpiling of grain and meat and strict control of prices by the town council.[5]
The most common grains in Poland weremillet (often made intokasza, a type of porridge) andwheat.Barley andoats were cultivated, but used mostly as animal feed or for brewingbeer.Cabbage (especially assauerkraut),kale,peas,broad beans, andonions were the most common vegetables.Dill andmustard were almost ubiquitouspotherbs andparsley was used as a leafy green in stews, as a flavor additive, and applied as a coloring agent in dishes for the upper classes.Beef,pork andpoultry (primarilychicken) were the most common meats, with the occasional appearance ofmutton andlamb.Game, as elsewhere, was highly prized, but in short supply and usually limited to the high nobility, as hunting licenses were controlled by land owners. Fish was a staple, but unlike Germans, Poles tended to eat it only on fast days when meat was forbidden by the church.
Beer was drunk by all social classes, and came in many different varieties and made from millet, wheat, barley, rye or oats sometimes in combination.Wheat beer was the most common.Labrador tea, a mildly toxic herb, was often used as an ingredient to increase intoxication. It was mixed withhops and then added to a barley and wheat beer to produce what was called "thick beer". Though often believed to be a common Slavic drink,mead was fairly expensive and primarily enjoyed atweddings andbaptismal parties, though always overshadowed by the ever-present beer. It had a high standing as a ceremonial drink and used when arranging alliances and closing contracts.Wine was generally quite expensive and was enjoyed mostly by the nobility. Although there is evidence of a fewvineyards in Poland, almost all wine had to be imported.
A large variety of breads, likeobwarzanki, were sold by vendors inKraków as early as the 14th century andplacki, flat cakes, came in a surprising number of varieties, including one variety with anapple topping, reminiscent ofpizza. German bakers operating in Polish towns had much influence.Krepels (from GermanKrapfen, "claw; hook") were fried pastries with a cheese filling served withstrawberries or other fruit, and resembled a modernempanada.[6]
The food eaten byAnglo-Saxons was long presumed to differ between elites and commoners. However, a 2022 study by theUniversity of Cambridge found that Anglo-Saxon elites and royalty both ate a primarilyvegetarian diet based oncereals, as did the peasantry. The discovery came after bioarchaeologist Sam Leggett analysed chemical dietary signatures from the bones of 2,023 people buried in England between the 5th to 11th centuries and cross referenced the analysis with markers of social status. Rather than elites eating regular banquets with huge quantities of meat, the researchers concluded these were occasional grand feasts hosted by the peasants for their rulers rather than regular occurrences.[7][8]Ale was the drink of choice of both Anglo-Saxon commoners and nobles, and known dishes included variousstews,broths,soups and early forms of thecrumpet.[9]Bacon was also consumed.[10]
TheNorman Conquest brought with it a variety of new foodstuffs to England. It has previously been believed that the Anglo-Norman cuisine was mostly similar to that of France, but recent study has shown that many recipes had unique English traits. This was based partly on the different available foodstuffs on theBritish Isles, but more due to influence fromArab cuisine through the Norman conquest ofSicily. The Arab invaders in the 9th century had cultivated their lifestyle culturally and economically to such a degree that the Norman invaders inherited and adapted many of their habits, including cooking styles. Norman participation in thecrusades also brought them into contact withMiddle Eastern andByzantine cooking. Thesubtlety (orentremet), the fanciful and highly decorative surprise dish used to separate one course from another, was brought to new levels of complexity and refinement by English chefs. Among the specialties werepommes dorées ("gilded apples"),meatballs ofmutton orchicken coloured withsaffron or a glaze ofegg yolk. The Anglo-Norman variant,pommes d'orange, were flavoured and coloured with the juice ofbitter oranges.[11]
The climate in the far north of Europe made cultivation of cereals even more difficult, and the wheat so popular in the south was a luxury in northern Europe. Wheat could cost at least twice as much as the most common grains,barley andrye. Barley was the most widely grown, but a great percentage of the harvest went into the extensivebeer production, while rye was the principal bread grain. Like in the rest of Europe,oats was considered only fit as animal fodder and was eaten only when no other choice was available, and then usually as porridge or gruel. Though grains were in the highest regard among medieval Scandinavians and were among the most frequently mentioned foods, other vegetable foods were an indispensable part of the diet: peas, turnips, beans, carrots, onions, leeks and various greens and herbs all provided essential nutrients and vitamins.Kale, a form ofcabbage, was especially important in Denmark and Sweden and was a valuable source of fresh food in the winter months, since it kept well and could be harvested (and even tasted better) after the first frost had set in.[12]
Fish was of great importance to most of Scandinavia, and particularly so was theherring fishing in theLimfjord andOresund. The great shoals of herring migrating from the Atlantic into the Baltic to feed were funnelled through certain narrow points and were caught in huge numbers. The amount of fish caught was more than enough to feed the local population and allowed for huge exports of smoked, and especially salted, fish. Great herring markets were organized in southern Scandinavia, most notably atSkanör inScania, which was in the Middle Ages part of Denmark. From this market alone, merchant vessels of theHanseatic League, the powerful medieval confederation of northern German cities, exported upwards of over 100,000 barrels of salted herring during many decades of the Late Middle Ages.[13] Of equal, or even greater importance wascod, often fished on the North Sea and Atlantic, dried to makestockfish, and imported as an important staple, particularly during fast and Lent. Many freshwater fish were also of great dietary or economic importance, such as salmon, eel, pike and bream.
Cattle rearing was very widespread in Scandinavia, especially Denmark, where theBlack Death had left huge field areas untended and well-suited for grazing. The majority of meat produced was consumed by the local population, but an export market for high-grade beef slowly built up after the 1360s, and had by the 17th century reached well over 100,000 animals per year. All this cattle meant not just meat, but also great quantities of dairy products, which consisted mostly of soured milk drinks, various cheeses and, also a major export product,butter.[14]
Northern French cuisine had many similarities to theAnglo-Norman French across thechannel, but also had its own specialties. Typical of the Northern French kitchen were thepotages andbroths, and French chefs excelled in the preparation of meat, fish,roasts, and the sauces that were considered appropriate to each dish. The use ofdough andpastry, which was fairly popular in Britain at the time, was almost completely absent from recipe collections with the exception of a fewpies. Nor were there any forms ofdumplings or thefritters that were so popular inCentral Europe. A common Northern French habit was to name dishes after famous and often exotic places and people.
A specialty among finer French chefs was the preparation of so-called parti-colored dishes. These mimicked the late medieval fashion of wearing clothing with two colors contrasting one another on either side of the garment, a fashion that survived in the costumes of courtjesters. The common Western European "white dish" (blanc manger) had a northern French variant where one side was colored bright red or blue. Another recipe inDu fait de cuisine from 1420 described anentremet consisting of a roastedboar's head with one half colored green and the other golden yellow.[15]
Roman influence on the entireMediterranean region was so considerable that to this day, the basic food in most of the region is stillwheat bread,olives,olive oil,wine,cheese, and the occasional piece of meat or fish. The territories from the Atlantic to theItalian Peninsula, and especially theCatalan andOccitan-speaking areas were closely interrelated culturally and politically. TheMuslim conquest ofSicily and southernSpain was highly influential on the cuisine by introducing new plants likelemons,pomegranates,eggplants and spices such assaffron. The coloring of food and many other cooking techniques were passed on by the Arab invaders to their European possessions and were gradually spread to regions further north.
TheIberian Peninsula has a highly varied geography with a centralMeseta, a vast, flat plateau, surrounded on all sides by mountain ranges and cut off from the rest of Europe by thePyrenees. This meant that several distinct cultures co-existed on the peninsula with several unique cuisines. Since Ancient times it had been a colony of severalMediterranean cultures. ThePhoenicians introduced the cultivation ofolives and theGreeks brought theMalvasia grape, founding a wine industry that would become renowned in the Middle Ages. But it was theRoman Empire, of which the peninsula was the westernmost outpost, that had the biggest impact on Iberian cuisine. After the collapse of Roman rule,Visigothic invaders conquered most of the modern day Spain and Portugal in the 5th century. The Visigoths took on many Roman customs, like the focus on vegetables, and usedLatin for official purposes. But it was the invasions of North African Muslims and the establishment ofAl-Andalus that gave Iberian cuisine its unique nature. The Muslims brought with them the highly refined cuisine influenced by Arab courts in the Middle East. The center of this Arab civilization wasBaghdad, at the time one of the largest cities in the world. The new rulers introduced many new customs and foodstuffs;goblets made ofglass rather than metal, savory meat dishes cooked with fruit, spices and herbs like cinnamon,mastic,caraway,sesame andmint and the use of ground almonds or rice as thickeners and a fondness for adding tangy liquids likeverjuice,tamarind and the juice of bitter oranges to produce a distinctly sweet-sour taste. The impact can clearly be seen in the multitude of Arab loanwords inSpanish;naranja "orange",azúcar ("sugar"),alcachofa ("artichoke"),azafrán ("saffron") andespinaca ("spinach"), many of which eventually spread to other languages in Europe. The Spanish Muslims established the sequences of dishes which was to permeate the entire continent and which still forms the basis for many modern European meals; soup followed by meat dishes and finished off with sweets. It's also believed thatescabeche, a vinegar-based dish, could very well be of Arab-Persian origin, though this has been contested.
One of the earliest medieval cookbooks in a language other thanLatin wasLibre de Sent Soví ("The Book ofSaint Sophia"), written inCatalan around 1324. A majority of its recipes call for bitter oranges, rose water and cider to achieve the popular tangy flavor of late medieval cuisine. It contains many fish recipes, but surprisingly enough, no mention ofshellfish, which must have been one of the major food sources in the Catalan coastal regions. The highly influentialLibre del Coch, in Catalan as well, was published in a printed edition in 1520, but is assumed to have been written no later than 1490. The typical medievalwhite dish (manjar blanco) seems to have appeared first in Catalonia in the 8th century and eventually evolved into a type of sweet pudding. While poorly represented in cookbooks, the most common food for the general population, other than the regular staples of bread, wine, garlic, onion and olive oil, included eggs, lamb, beef, kid and bacon.
The Jewish population of Al-Andalus, theSephardic Jews, developed theircuisine in close contact with Christians and Muslims. Influences went in both directions and lasted even after the expulsions and forced conversions of the Jewish population that followed theReconquista. Among the specialties wasadafina (fromArabical dafina "the buried treasure"), a meat dish that was prepared by burying it in hot coals on the day before theShabbat. Jewish fish pie dishes have survived inSpanish cuisine asempanadas de pescado.[16]
The lucrative Mediterranean trade inspices,silk and other luxuries fromAfrica andAsia were shipped on thegalleys of the powerfulcity-states ofGenoa,Venice andFlorence, making them phenomenally rich.Medieval Italy, meaning primarily the northernItalian Peninsula, was one of the few regions in medieval Europe where the distinction between nobility and prosperous commoners were more or less irrelevant, the result of a significant, rich and self-consciousmiddle class. This meant that the level of culinary refinement and diversity was especially great when compared to the rest of the continent. Italian cuisine was, and still is, better described as a multitude of highly varied regional cuisines, each with long traditions and their own specialties. Italian dishes can therefore be considered either traditional or imported. Being the hub of a vast trade network meant that there was greater access to foreign luxuries to influence the local cooking. Still, there was a great deal of conservatism and in general far more of local Italian foodstuffs were exported to theNew World than the other way around, though the impact of important products such asvanilla,corn,kidney beans, and of course, thetomato, which had a considerable impact on the cooking south ofNaples, even if this transition took some time.[17]
Many Italian staples and internationally recognized favorites were invented and refined during the Late Middle Ages and the early Renaissance;pasta was on everyone's dinner plate by the 13th century, though it was commonly made out ofrice flour rather thandurum wheat;pizza, the medieval Italian term for "pie", andtortes came in many varieties with a wide range of toppings, ranging frommarzipan, andcustards to chicken, eel, or evenhemp;polenta made fromFrench green lentils orbarley; risotto; and a myriad of local or regional variants ofsausage andcheese which was eaten by more or less everyone. As early as the Middle Ages, the cheeses, in particular, appear to have been highly specialized, from a fresh Tuscan to an aged Milanese from Tadesca, wrapped and shipped in tree bark. Medieval Italians also used eggs to a higher degree than many other regions, and the recipe collections describe herb omelettes (herboletos) andfrittatas. Grapes as tasty morsels and lemons as a cooking ingredient was ubiquitous and, of course, olive oil of every conceivable kind was the cooking fat of choice in all regions, including the north, for dressing salads, frying, seasoning, marinading and preserving meats.[18]
The cuisine of southern France, corresponding roughly to the extent ofOccitania, had far more in common with Italian and Spanish cooking than with northern French cuisine. Ingredients that distinguished southern cooking includedsugar,walnut oil,chickpeas,pomegranates andlemons, all of which were grown locally. While pomegranate seeds were occasionally used to decorate dishes in France and England, flavoring dishes withpomegranate juice was a practice unique to the Occitan areas. The use ofbutter andlard was rare,salted meat for frying was common, and the preferred methods of cooking tended to be dry roasting, frying, or baking. For the latter, atrapa, a portable oven that was filled with food and buried in hot ashes, was often used.
Dishes still common today, likeescabeche, a vinegar-based dish, andaillade (aioli), agarlic sauce (still made in Toulouse with walnut oil), were well-established in the Late Middle Ages. Evidence of influence from Muslim Spain can be found in recipes formatafeam, a Christian version of the originally Hispano-JewishShabbat stewadafina, but with pork rather than lamb. And,Raymonia (Occitan; Ital:Romania) is based on the ArabicRummaniya, a chickenbruet with pomegranate juice, ground almonds, and sugar. Only one recipe collection is positively identified as being from southern France. TheModus viaticorum preparandorum et salsarum is a collection of 51 recipes. It was written ca. 1380–90 inLatin with occasional words inOccitan. TheModus contains aSalsa de cerpol (Wild thyme sauce) and aCofiment anguille (Confit of eel), which appear nowhere else but in Occitania.[19]
A cookery book from northern Europe may have originated in Provence. Known from itsincipit asLibellus de arte coquinaria, it is the Codex K version of the Harpestraeng Cookbook, which is part of a collection of medical papers written by, or belonging to, Dr. Henrik Harpestraeng. It is currently housed in the Royal Library of Copenhagen (Ny samling Nr. 66, 8 vo.). Food historian Dr. Rudolf Grewe proposed a NW Mediterranean origin for this book based on the recipes and their ingredients, such as saffron. Since Harpestraeng studied medicine in Provence, probably at Montpellier, he may have obtained the book during that time. Harpestraeng may have brought the book to Denmark, where he was the physician to King Valdemar II. Codex K is believed to have been copied into Danish from an earlier Low German original, or copy. This would have happened before 1244, the year Harpestraeng died. If so,Libellus de arte coquinaria is the earliest Western European cookery book, sinceApicius'De re coquinaria.[20]
Some dietary details have been extrapolated fromVatican archives from 1305–78 whenAvignon was the seat of theAvignon Papacy. Though the lifestyles of the papal courts could often be very luxurious, the Vatican account books of the dailyalms given to the poor describe some of what lower class food in the region was like. The food that was handed out to the needing consisted mainly of bread,legumes, and some wine. These were occasionally supplemented with cheese, fish, olive oil and meat of low quality.
Montpellier, located on inLanguedoc only a few miles from the coast, was a major center for trade, education in medicine, and was famous for itsespices de chamber or "parlor confections", a term for sweets such as candiedaniseed and ginger. The confectionery from the town was so renowned that itsmarket value was twice as high as that of similar products from other towns. Montpellier was also well known for its spices and the wines with which they were flavored, like the ubiquitoushypocras.[19]
The culinary traditions ofRoman times lived on in theByzantine empire. Inherited fromGreek traditions was the use ofolives andolive oil, wheat bread, and plenty of fish. These would very often be served or prepared withgarós, the Greek term forgarum, a sauce made out offermented fish that was so popular that it more or less replacedsalt as the common food flavoring. The Byzantine kitchen was also influenced byArab cuisine from which it imported the use ofeggplants andoranges.Seafood was very popular and includedtuna,lobster,mussels,oysters,murena, andcarp. Around the 11th century the habit of eatingroe andcaviar was also imported from theBlack Sea region.Dairy products were consumed in the form ofcheese (particularlyfeta), and nuts and fruits such asdates,figs,grapes,pomegranates, andapples. The choice of meats werelamb, and several wild animals likegazelles,wild asses, andsuckling young in general. Meat was often salted, smoked or dried. Wine was popular, like elsewhere around the Mediterranean, and it was the drink of choice among the higher social classes, where sweet wines likeMuscat orMadeira/Malmsey were popular. Among the lower classes, the common drink tended to bevinegar mixed with water. Like all Christian societies the Byzantines had to abide by the dietary restrictions of thechurch, which meant avoiding meats (and preferably general excesses) on Wednesdays and Fridays and duringfast andLent.
The Byzantine empire also became quite famous for its desserts, which included biscuits,rice pudding,quincemarmalade,rose sugar and many types ofnon-alcoholic beverages. The most common sweetener washoney, withsugar extracted fromsugar cane being reserved for those who could afford it.
The food of the lower classes was mostly vegetarian and limited to olives, fruit,onions, and the occasional piece ofcheese, orstews made fromcabbage and saltedpork. The standard meal of ashoemaker was described in a Byzantine poem, one of theProdromic Poems, as consisting of some cooked foods and an omelette followed by hot salted pork with an unspecifiedgarlic dish.[21]