| Regency era | |||
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| c. 1795 – 1837 | |||
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| Monarch(s) | George III George IV William IV | ||
| Leaders | George, Prince Regent[1] | ||
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TheRegency era ofBritish history is commonly understood as the years betweenc. 1795 and 1837, although the officialregency for which it is named only spanned the years 1811 to 1820. KingGeorge III first suffered debilitating illness in the late 1780s, and relapsed into his final mental illness in 1810. By theRegency Act 1811, his eldest sonGeorge, Prince of Wales, was appointedPrince Regent to discharge royal functions. The Prince had been a major force inSociety for decades. When George III died in 1820, the Prince Regent succeeded him as George IV. In terms ofperiodisation, the longer timespan is roughly the final third of theGeorgian era (1714–1837), encompassing the last 25 years or so of George III's reign, including the official Regency, and the complete reigns of both George IV and his brother and successorWilliam IV. It ends with the accession ofQueen Victoria in June 1837 and is followed by theVictorian era (1837–1901).
Although the Regency era is remembered as a time of refinement and culture, that was the preserve of the wealthy few, especially those in the Prince Regent's own social circle. For the masses, poverty was rampant as urban population density rose due to industrial labour migration. City dwellers lived in increasingly largerslums, a state of affairs severely aggravated by the combined impact of war, economic collapse, mass unemployment, a bad harvest in 1816 (the "Year Without a Summer"), and an ongoingpopulation boom. Political response to the crisis included theCorn Laws, thePeterloo Massacre, and theRepresentation of the People Act 1832. Led byWilliam Wilberforce, there was increasing support for theabolitionist cause during the Regency era, culminating in passage of theSlave Trade Act 1807 and theSlavery Abolition Act 1833.
The longer timespan recognises the wider social and cultural aspects of the Regency era, characterised by the distinctivefashions,architecture and style of the period. The period began in the midst of theFrench Revolutionary andNapoleonic Wars. Throughout the whole period, theIndustrial Revolution gathered pace and achieved significant progress by the coming of therailways and the growth of thefactory system. The Regency era overlapped withRomanticism and many of the major artists, musicians, novelists and poets of the Romantic movement were prominent Regency figures, such asJane Austen,William Blake,Lord Byron,John Constable,John Keats,John Nash,Ann Radcliffe,Walter Scott,Mary Shelley,Percy Bysshe Shelley,J. M. W. Turner andWilliam Wordsworth.
George III (1738–1820) becameKing of Great Britain on 25 October 1760 when he was 22 years old, succeeding his grandfatherGeorge II. George III had himself been the subject of legislation to provide for aregency whenParliament passed theMinority of Successor to Crown Act 1751 following the death of his fatherFrederick, Prince of Wales, on 31 March 1751. George becameheir apparent at the age of 12 and he would have succeeded as a minor if his grandfather had died before 4 June 1756, George's 18th birthday. As a contingency, the Act provided for his mother,Augusta, Dowager Princess of Wales, to be appointed regent and discharge most but not all royal functions.[citation needed]
In 1761, George III married PrincessCharlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and over the following years they had 15 children (nine sons and six daughters). The eldest wasPrince George, born on 12 August 1762 as heir apparent. He was namedPrince of Wales soon after his birth. By 1765, three infant children led the order of succession and Parliament again passed a Regency Act as contingency. TheMinority of Heir to the Crown Act 1765 provided for either Queen Charlotte or Princess Augusta to act as regent if necessary.[citation needed] George III had a long episode of mental illness in the summer of 1788. Parliament proposed theRegency Bill 1789 which was passed by theHouse of Commons. Before theHouse of Lords could debate it, the King recovered and the Bill was withdrawn. Had it been passed into law, the Prince of Wales would have become the regent in 1789.[2]
The King's mental health continued to be a matter of concern but, whenever he was of sound mind, he opposed any further moves to implement a Regency Act. Finally, following the death on 2 November 1810 of his youngest daughter,Princess Amelia, he became permanently insane. Parliament passed theCare of King During his Illness, etc. Act 1811, commonly known as theRegency Act 1811. The King was suspended from his duties as head of state and the Prince of Wales assumed office as Prince Regent on 5 February 1811.[3] At first, Parliament restricted some of the Regent's powers, but the constraints expired one year after the passage of the Act.[4] The Regency ended when George III died on 29 January 1820 and the Prince Regent succeeded him as George IV.[5]
After George IV died in 1830, a furtherRegency Act was passed by Parliament. George IV was succeeded by his brotherWilliam IV. His wife,Queen Adelaide, was 37 and there were no surviving legitimate children. The heir presumptive wasPrincess Victoria of Kent, aged eleven. The new Act provided for her mother,Victoria, Dowager Duchess of Kent to become regent in the event of William's death before 24 May 1837, the young Victoria's 18th birthday. The Act made allowance for Adelaide having another child, either before or after William's death. If the latter scenario had arisen, Victoria would have become Queen only temporarily until the new monarch was born. Adelaide had no more children and, as it happened, William died on 20 June 1837, just four weeks after Victoria was 18.[6]
Officially, the Regency began on 5 February 1811 and ended on 29 January 1820 but the "Regency era", as such, is generally perceived to have been much longer. The term is commonly, though loosely, applied to the period fromc. 1795 until the accession ofQueen Victoria on 20 June 1837.[7] The Regency Era is a sub-period of the longerGeorgian era (1714–1837), both of which were followed by theVictorian era (1837–1901). The latter term had contemporaneous usage although some historians give it an earlier startpoint, typically the enactment of theGreat Reform Act on 7 June 1832.[8][9][10]
The Prince Regent himself was one of the leading patrons of thearts andarchitecture. He ordered the costly building and refurbishing of the exoticBrighton Pavilion, the ornateCarlton House, and many other public works and architecture. This all required considerable expense which neither the Regent himself norHM Treasury could afford. The Regent's extravagance was pursued at the expense of the common people.[11]
While the Regency is noted for its elegance and achievements in the fine arts and architecture, there was a concurrent need for social, political and economic change. The country was enveloped in theNapoleonic Wars until June 1815 and the conflict heavily impacted commerce at home and internationally. There was massunemployment and,in 1816, an exceptionally badharvest. In addition, the country underwent apopulation boom and the combination of these factors resulted in rampantpoverty. Apart from thenational unity government led byWilliam Grenville from February 1806 to March 1807, all governments from December 1783 to November 1830 were formed and led byTories. Their responses to the national crisis included thePeterloo Massacre in 1819 and the variousCorn Laws. TheWhig government ofEarl Grey passed theGreat Reform Act in 1832.[10][12]
Essentially, England during the Regency era was a stratified society in which political power and influence lay in the hands of the landed class. Their fashionable locales were worlds apart from theslums in which the majority of people existed. The slum districts were known asrookeries, a notorious example beingSt Giles in London. These were places where alcoholism, gambling, prostitution, thievery and violence prevailed.[13] The population boom, comprising an increase from just under a million in 1801 to one and a quarter million by 1820, heightened the crisis.[14]Robert Southey drew a comparison between the squalor of the slums and the glamour of the Regent's circle:[15]
The squalor that existed beneath the glamour and gloss of Regency society provided sharp contrast to the Prince Regent's social circle. Poverty was addressed only marginally. The formation of the Regency after the retirement ofGeorge III saw the end of a more pious and reserved society, and gave birth of a more frivolous, ostentatious one. This change was influenced by the Regent himself, who was kept entirely removed from the machinations of politics and military exploits. This did nothing to channel his energies in a more positive direction, thereby leaving him with the pursuit of pleasure as his only outlet, as well as his sole form of rebellion against what he saw as disapproval and censure in the form of his father.
TheRepresentation of the People Act 1832 (known as theGreat Reform Act) reformed the electoral system in England and Wales and expanded the list of voters. The measure was brought forward by theWhig government of Prime MinisterCharles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey over fierce opposition by the Tory Party, especially in the House of Lords. It granted the right to vote to a broader segment of the male population by standardizing property qualifications, and extending the franchise to small landowners, tenant farmers, shopkeepers, and all householders who paid a yearly rental of £10 or more. The act for England and Wales was accompanied by theScottish Reform Act 1832 andIrish Reform Act 1832[16][17]
Historians have long grappled with whether it was a radical modernizing movement that introduced democracy or a conservative measure intended to preserve aristocratic rule by making necessary concessions.[18] The terrific battle that produced the 1832 law encouraged reformers, and Parliament passed a series of important reforms in 1833-1841.[19][20]
ThePoor laws were reformed. By the early 19th century, the existing "Old Poor Law" (1601) was criticised as unworkable and too expensive because it primarily used "outdoor relief"—cash aid given to the poor in their homes. Critics argued this practice was overly generous and promoted idleness. In 1834 Parliament therefore passed the Poor Law Amendment Act introducing a radical shift as outdoor relief was largely abolished. The major innovation was the workhouse for full-time confinement. Living conditions within the workhouse were made deliberately worse than the bad conditions faced by paupers. The decentralised parish system was replaced by a centralised structure run by the new "Poor Law Commission" in London. Some 15,000 parishes were grouped into 600 new "Poor Law Unions". The new workhouses were designed to be deliberately grim: families were separated, inmates wore uniforms, performed monotonous labour, and lived under strict discipline. The reforms were met with significant unpopularity and opposition, especially among the working poor in industrial areas. Nevertheless this harsh system remained the primary form of welfare until it was gradually modified and eventually replaced by modern, more humane welfare provisions in the 20th century.[21][22]
The long debate onEmancipation of the British West Indies was climaxed in 1833 with the abolition of slavery in the West Indies colonies to take effect in 1834. Owners were fully compensated, and freed slaves became paid apprentices.[23]
The Great Reform Act of 1832, while primarily a political reform, gave industrial towns like Manchester, Birmingham and Leeds representation in Parliament, allowing industrialists and merchants to push for policies favouring economic growth, improved infrastructure, and labour laws.[24] TheFactory Acts introduced protections for workers, particularly children.[25]
The powerful farming community fought hard to keep food prices high. The free trade movement finally triumphed in 1846 with the repeal of theCorn Laws . It had a dramatic impact on reshaping the economy.[26]
Focused on theMunicipal Corporations Act of 1835.
Chartism was a large-scale working-class protest movement for political reform that erupted from 1838 to 1857 and was strongest in 1839, 1842 and 1848. It was based in industrial cities where workers depended on single industries and were subject to wild swings in economic activity. The main activity was canvassing for petitions with thousands—even millions—of signatures that demanded reform. The petitions demanded six democratic reforms:[27]
The movement was fiercely opposed by the government, which finally suppressed it. It inspired activists by demonstrating that very large audiences could be mobilized to demand reforms. The first five of its proposals were eventually adopted decades later.[28]
Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey (1764 – 1845) was a Whig politician who served as prime minister from 1830 to 1834. He had primary responsibility for enacting the Reform Acts of 1832, the 1833 Factory Act, the 1834 Poor Law, and the abolition of slavery. He steered a middle course, promoting multiple reforms with very thin majorities while sidetracking the radical Whigs.[29][30] Second in importance wasLord John Russell (1792–1878), who was active in many reforms in his long career.[31]
The first Anti–Corn Law Association was set up in London in 1836. By 1838 thenationwide League, combining all such local associations, was founded, withRichard Cobden andJohn Bright among its leaders. At the popular level the well-organized Anti-Corn Law League called for lower food prices. After 1845 they emphasized the disastrous potato famine in Ireland.[32][33]
The opponents of reform were a diverse group, based largely in the Tory Party and traditional landed gentry.[34] In Parliament the opponents of reform were known as "Ultra-Tories." The Duke of Wellington was personally inclined against reform, but he saw the need to support moderate reforms. Likewise Robert Peel, the next Tory leader, was highly distrustful of popular agitation. He typically opposed the passage of a new reform, but accepted it after it became law.[35]
After the Napoleonic wars ended architecture flourished.[36]
In the 1810s, the Prince Regent proposed the conversion of Crown land inMarylebone andSt Pancras into a pleasure garden. The design work was initially assigned to the architectJohn Nash but it was the father and son partnership ofJames andDecimus Burton who had the majority of input to the project.[37] Landscaping continued through the 1820s andRegent's Park was finally opened to the public in 1841.[38]
The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) was founded in 1826 bySir Stamford Raffles andSir Humphry Davy. They obtained land alongside the route of theRegent's Canal through the northern perimeter of Regent's Park, between theCity of Westminster and theLondon Borough of Camden. Following the death of Raffles soon afterwards, the3rd Marquess of Lansdowne assumed responsibility for the project and supervised construction of the first animal houses.[39] At first, the zoo was used for scientific purposes only with admittance restricted to Fellows of the ZSL which, in 1829, was granted aRoyal charter by George IV. The zoo was not opened to the public until 1847, after it became necessary to raise funds.[39]
Jane Austen,Lord Byron,Walter Scott and others were the most prominent writers of the Regency era. Especially popular forms of literature at this time were novels and poetry, such as C. F. Lawler (fl. 1812–1819)'s satiricalThe Regent's Bomb (The R----t's bomb!c. 1816) (published under Lawler'spseudonym Peter Pindar[a]).[40][41]
Wealthy households staged their own music events by relying on family members who could sing or play an instrument. For the vast majority of people, street performers provided their sole access to music of any kind. However, the upper class enjoyed music such as Ludwig van Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 30, Felix Mendelssohn's Violin Sonata in F major, MWV Q 7, and much more.[42][43] Especially popular composers of the time included Beethoven, Rossini, Liszt, and Mendelssohn.[44]
The most prominent landscape painters wereJohn Constable andJ. M. W. Turner. Notableportrait painters includeThomas Lawrence andMartin Archer Shee, both Presidents of theRoyal Academy. TheNational Gallery was established in London in 1824.[45][46]
The plays ofWilliam Shakespeare were very popular throughout the period. The performers wore modern dress, however, rather than 16th-century costumes.[47]
London had threepatent theatres atCovent Garden,Drury Lane and theHaymarket. Other prominent theatres were theTheatre Royal, Bath and theCrow Street Theatre inDublin. The playwright and politicianRichard Brinsley Sheridan controlled the Drury Lane Theatre until it burned down in 1809.
Among the popular newspapers, pamphlets and other publications of the era were:[48]
In 1814,The Times newspaper adopted steam printing. Using this method, it could print 1,100 sheets every hour, five and a half times the prior rate of 200 per hour.[49] The faster speed of printing enabled the rise of daily newspapers. It also made feasible of the "silver fork novels" which depicted the lives of the rich and aristocratic. Publishers used these as a way of spreading gossip and scandal, often clearly hinting at identities. The novels were popular during the later years of the Regency era.[50]
During the Regency era and well into the succeeding Victorian era, society women were discouraged from exertion although many did take the opportunity to pursue activities such as dancing, riding and walking that were recreational rather than competitive. Depending on a lady's rank, she may be expected to be proficient in reading and writing, mathematics, dancing, music, sewing, and embroidery.[51] InPride and Prejudice, the Bennet sisters are frequently out walking and it is at aball whereElizabeth meetsMr Darcy. There was a contemporary belief that people had limited energy levels; women, as the "weaker sex", being most at risk of over-exertion because their menstruation cycles caused periodic energy reductions.[52]
One of the most common activities among the upper class was attending and hosting balls, house parties, and more. These often included dancing, food, and gossip. The food generally served included items such as white soup made with veal stock, almonds and cream, cold meats, and salads.[44]
Bare-knuckle boxing, also known asprizefighting, was a popular sport through the 18th and 19th centuries. The Regency era has been called "the peak of British boxing" because the champion fighter in Britain was also, in effect, the world champion. Britain's only potential rival was the United States, where organised boxing beganc. 1800.[53] Boxing was in fact illegal but local authorities, who were often involved on the gambling side of the sport, would turn a blind eye. In any case, the huge crowds that attended championship bouts were almost impossible to police. Likecricket andhorse racing, boxing attractedgamblers. The sport needed the investment provided by gambling, but there was a seamier side in that many fights were fixed.[53]
At one time, prizefighting was "anything goes" but the champion boxerJack Broughton proposed a set of rules in 1743 that were observed throughout the Regency era until they were superseded by theLondon Prize Ring Rules in 1838.[53] Broughton's rules were a reaction to "bar room brawling" as they restricted fighters to use of the fists only. A round ended when a fighter was grounded and the rules prohibited the hitting of a downed opponent. He was helped to his corner and then had thirty seconds in which to "step up to the mark", which was a line drawn for that purpose so that the fighters squared off less than a yard apart. The next round would then begin. A fighter who failed to step up and square off was declared the loser. Contests continued until one fighter could not step up.[53]
There were no weight divisions and so aheavyweight always had a natural advantage over smaller fighters. Even so, the first British champion of the Regency era wasDaniel Mendoza, amiddleweight who had successfully claimed the vacant title in 1792. He held it until he was defeated by the heavyweightGentleman John Jackson in April 1795. Other Regency era champions were famous fighters likeJem Belcher,Hen Pearce,John Gully,Tom Cribb,Tom Spring,Jem Ward andJames Burke.[54] Gully went on to become a successfulracehorse owner and, representing thePontefract constituency, aMember of the firstpost-Reform Parliament from December 1832 to July 1837.[55] Cribb was the first fighter to be acclaimed world champion after he twice defeated the AmericanTom Molineaux in 1811.[56][57]
Marylebone Cricket Club, widely known as MCC, was founded in 1787 and becamecricket's governing body. In 1788, the club drafted and published a revised version of the sport's rules. MCC had considerable influence throughout the Regency era and its ground,Lord's, became cricket's premier venue.[58] There were in fact three Lord's grounds. The first, opened in 1787 when the club was formed, was on the site ofDorset Square inMarylebone, hence the name of the club.[59] The lease was terminated in 1811 because of a rental dispute and the club took temporary lease of a second ground inSt John's Wood.[59] This was in use for only three seasons until the land was requisitioned because it was on the proposed route of theRegent's Canal. MCC moved to a nearby site on which they established their present ground.[60]
Lord Byron played forHarrow School in the firstEton v Harrow match at Lord's in 1805.[61] The match became an annual event in the social calendar.[citation needed]
Lord's staged the firstGentlemen v Players match in 1806.[citation needed] This fixture provides another illustration of the class divide in Regency society as it matched a team of well-to-do amateurs (Gentlemen) against a team ofworking-class professionals (Players). The first match featuredBilly Beldham andWilliam Lambert, who have been recognised as the outstanding professionals of the period, andLord Frederick Beauclerk as the outstanding amateur player.[citation needed] The 1821 match ended prematurely after the Gentlemen team, well behind in the contest, conceded defeat. This had been billed as the "Coronation Match" because it celebrated the accession of the Prince Regent as King George IV and the outcome was described by the sports historianSir Derek Birley as "a suitably murky affair".[citation needed]
Football in Great Britain had long been a no-holds-barred pastime with an unlimited number of players on opposing teams which might comprise whole parishes or villages. The playing area was an undefined stretch of land between the two places. Theball, as such, was often a pig'sbladder that had been inflated and the object of the exercise was to move the ball by any means possible to a distant target such as a church in the opposing village. The contests were typically arranged to take place on feast days likeShrove Tuesday.[62][63] By the beginning of the 19th century, efforts were being made in the Englishpublic schools to transform thismob football into an organised team sport. The earliest-known versions of football code rules were written atEton College (1815) andAldenham School (1825).[64]
Horse racing had been very popular since the years after theRestoration whenCharles II was a frequent visitor toNewmarket Racecourse. In the Regency era, thefive classic races had all been inaugurated and have been run annually since 1814. These races are theSt Leger Stakes (first run in 1776),The Oaks (1779), theEpsom Derby (1780), the2,000 Guineas Stakes (1809) and the1,000 Guineas Stakes (1814).[65]
National Hunt racing began in 18th century Ireland and developed in England through the Regency era. There are tentative references to races held between 1792 and 1810.[66] The first definitely recordedhurdle race took place onDurdham Down, nearBristol, in 1821.[67] The first officially recognisedsteeplechase was over a cross-country route in Bedfordshire on 8 March 1830.[68]
Aintree Racecourse held its first meeting on 7 July 1829.[69] On 29 February 1836, a race called theGrand Liverpool Steeplechase was held. One of its organisers was CaptainMartin Becher who rodeThe Duke to victory. The infamous sixth fence at Aintree is calledBecher's Brook. The 1836 race, which became an annual event, is recognised by some as the firstGrand National, but there are historical uncertainties about the three races between 1836 and 1838 so they are officially regarded as precursors to the Grand National. Some sources insist they were held on Old Racecourse Farm in nearbyMaghull but this is impossible as that course closed in 1835.[70] The first official Grand National was the1839 race.[71]
Rowing andsailing had become popular pastimes among the wealthier citizens.The Boat Race, a rowing event between theCambridge University Boat Club and theOxford University Boat Club, was first held in 1829 at the instigation ofCharles Merivale andCharles Wordsworth, who were students at Cambridge and Oxford, respectively. Wordsworth was a nephew ofWilliam Wordsworth. The first race was atHenley-on-Thames and the contest later became an annual event on theRiver Thames in London.[72] In sailing, the firstCowes Week regatta was held on theSolent in August 1826.[73]
Track and field competitions in the modern sense were first recorded in the early 19th century. They are known to have been held by schools, colleges, army and navy bases, social clubs and the like, often as a challenge to a rival establishment.[74] In the public schools, athletics competitions were conceived as human equivalents of horse racing orfox hunting with runners known as "hounds" and named as if they were racehorses. TheRoyal Shrewsbury School Hunt, established in 1819, is the world's oldest running club. The school organisedpaper chase races in which the hounds followed a trail of paper shreds left by two "foxes". The oldest running race of the modern era is Shrewsbury's AnnualSteeplechase (cross-country), first definitely recorded in 1834.[75]
The following is a list of places associated with the Regency era:[77]
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For more names see Newman (1997).[87]
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